We are the first generation to face the impacts of human-made global heating and the last generation with the opportunity to avert the climate crisis. What we choose to do in the next ten years will decide the future of life on this planet.

In 2018, the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) warned that to avoid irreversible consequences for natural and human systems around the world, we must achieve radical cuts to Greenhouse gases (GHGs) before 2030. Current actions are insufficient and will not reduce the rise of global temperatures to the 1.5˚C target set in the Paris Agreement under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

If temperature rise exceeds 1.5˚C, the consequences for the environment and people all around the world will escalate with new intensity. The risks of extreme weather and rising temperatures, heavy rainfall and severe droughts in multiple regions will accelerate. All this will further impact on rising sea levels, loss of biodiversity, and extinction of whole ecosystems, including marine wildlife. As a result, water supply, food security, human health and livelihoods will also be in serious danger. The world’s most vulnerable and disadvantaged populations, especially those living in coastal areas, will be most severely affected. Global inequality will be reinforced and will lead to widespread migration.

Limiting warming to 1.5˚C is still possible, but it requires revolutionary changes in all areas of life, especially in management of land, energy, industry, buildings, cities, and behaviors. Active commitment, collaboration and rapid action are now urgently needed from individuals, governments, industry, advocacy organizations, education institutions and the media, to radically cut the human ecological footprint before 2030. The fashion sector has a vital role to play as it is implicated in the current situation through its practices and its role in influencing culturally and socially accepted behaviors.

- Centre for Sustainable Fashion

Air pollution refers to the release of particles and gases into the atmosphere that are harmful to humans and the environment. The most critical air pollutants include Carbon dioxide (CO2), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), Methane, Sulphur dioxide (SO2), Carbon monoxide, particulate matter (dust) and ground-level ozone. Their release is linked with human activities such as burning of fossil fuels in households; industry (with a significant contribution from all stages of fashion value chain); transport and agricultural operations; incineration of waste and its decomposition in landfill; or burning used for fast deforestation. Additionally, in some geographical areas, sand and desert dust and other environmental factors such as gases and ash produced by volcanic activity also significantly affect the air quality. The World Health Organization estimates that outdoor and indoor air pollution causes around 7 million deaths annually, with those from poor and marginalized communities in low-income and middle-income countries of Asia and Africa being among the most vulnerable.⁽¹⁾ Many urban areas, and especially the global megacities, significantly exceed the WHO’s recommended air quality levels, often by as much as 5 times.⁽¹⁾ Breathing polluted air increases the risk of stroke, heart disease, lung cancer, as well as chronic and acute respiratory diseases, including asthma and pneumonia. In addition, poor air quality, especially pollution linked to ground-level ozone, negatively affects plants and decreases crop yields, with a knock-on effect on global food security. During the Covid-19 pandemic, NASA observations indicated a striking difference in key pollutant levels before and during the spring 2020 lockdown periods in major industrial and residential areas of China, India and the United States, offering evidence that reduced transportation and industrial activities can significantly improve the global ambient air quality. Radical cuts in pollutants emitted to the atmosphere are critical for tackling the climate emergency.^(4-8)(1-8)

See also: CO2 emissions, Greenhouse gases (GHGs), Greenhouse effect, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Paris Agreement, Global inequality, Urbanization, Decarbonization.

The Anthropocene is a concept of a new geological era, proposed in 2000 by the Nobel prize- winning atmospheric scientist Paul J. Crutzen⁽¹⁾ to mark an epoch that corresponds with significant human impact on the environment. Over the last twenty years, the term has gained considerable traction in the discussions on human-induced climate change, especially for highlighting the gravity and scope of irreversible changes in the global ecosystems caused by human activity. However, the Anthropocene debate has also attracted criticism from those who argue that the concept homogenizes the human race by blaming all for the damage caused by the behavior and lifestyles of a relative minority. Critics also point out that the current environmental crisis has cultural, economic and political roots. This means that while the views on dating the beginning of the Anthropocene era range from the 15th-century European expansion to the escalating speed, scale and degree of changes since the mid-20th century, in all cases, the human impact on the environment is a question of choice rather than an inevitable result of human “nature”.^(2-5) Others also believe that the concept has been gradually reappropriated into a vision of the “good Anthropocene”, with the promise that the current climate crisis can be turned into a business opportunity through innovation, engineering and eco-modernization.^(6,7)

See also: Global inequality, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Planetary boundaries, Climate emergency, Global heating, Growth, Endangered species, Extinction, Decolonization, Interdependence.

Biodiversity or biological diversity is defined by the United Nations as "variability among living organisms from all sources including, among other things, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems".⁽¹⁾ While extinction of species is a natural process, it is estimated that the current rate of biodiversity loss is 1000 times higher than the natural rate.^(2,3) The recent report of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) warns that the loss of species and global decline of natural systems is accelerating at a rate unprecedented in human history.⁽⁴⁾ Biodiversity loss severely impacts the health of entire ecosystems, and consequently also the human ability to adapt to the changing environment. As a result, “we are eroding the very foundations of our economies, livelihoods, food security, health and quality of life worldwide”.⁽⁵⁾

See also: Wildlife, Deforestation, Land degradation, Land use, Irreversibility, Climate change.

The 1987 Brundtland Report (published under the title Our Common Future) is a document that significantly contributed to raising public awareness of the term sustainable development. The report was named after Gro Harlem Brundtland, former prime minister of Norway and the leader of the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), who commissioned it. Its definition of sustainable development as "the development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs"⁽¹⁾ still frames the understanding of the term today. Importantly, the Brundtland Report also highlighted that sustainable development “is not a fixed state of harmony” but “a process of change” in which the respect for finite resources of the planet, global equality, equity and well-being, are the main drivers of any investments, technological innovation, political systems and organizational policies.⁽¹⁾

See also: Global inequality, Environmental costs, Accountability, Paradigm change, Growth, Post-growth economy, Planetary boundaries, Non-renewable resources, Renewable resources.

Carbon is a unique chemical element common to all known life, with an ability to form a huge variety of strong chains of various lengths.⁽¹⁾ Combined with oxygen in carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon is present in the atmosphere and in the oceans. Carbon combined with hydrogen atoms forms hydrocarbons, whose fossilized deposits such as remains of plants and other organisms generate fossil fuels including coal, petroleum and natural gas. All living things require carbon for survival. Green plants and photosynthetic plankton obtain it through the process of photosynthesis, while humans and animals consume other living things such as plants and animals to obtain carbon. Plants, animals and humans alike then release carbon into the atmosphere in the form of CO2 through the process of respiration. Carbon is omnipresent in the environment as it circulates in the carbon cycle through the processes of photosynthesis, respiration and decomposition of living organisms. Together with the water cycle and the nitrogen cycle, the carbon cycle is thus critical for sustaining life on Earth. However, the balance of the carbon cycle has been altered by the burning of fossil fuels, releasing large quantities of CO2 into the atmosphere. The excessive presence of carbon in the atmosphere leads to the greenhouse effect and causes global warming and climate change.^(1-4)

See also: Greenhouse gases (GHGs), CO2 emissions, Carbon footprint, Carbon neutral, Carbon offsetting, Decarbonization, Deforestation, Kyoto Protocol, Paris Agreement, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

See CO2 emissions.

Carbon footprint is the estimated volume of emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG), especially CO2 emissions, produced both directly and indirectly to meet the requirements of an individual, an organization or a population.⁽¹⁾ It is usually calculated as an equivalent of carbon dioxide (CO2) in tons. Carbon footprint is one of the elements of ecological footprint, a concept developed in the 1990s by Canadian ecologists William Rees and Mathis Wackernagel, to estimate the environmental resources that a population consumes.^(2,3) Life-cycle assessment (LCA) methods also enable the measurement of the carbon footprint of manufactured products. It must be noted that there are vast differences in ecological footprint between different countries and also between different social groups within countries, which is a reflection of global inequality.

See also: Carbon neutral, Decarbonization, Carbon offsetting, Fossil fuels, Climate change, Global warming, Greenhouse effect.

See Carbon offsetting.

The term carbon neutral, equivalent to net-zero emissions or net-zero carbon footprint, refers to a situation where greenhouse gases (GHGs) and CO2 emissions associated with individuals, organizations or whole populations are either balanced by short-term compensatory actions such as carbon offsetting, or eliminated altogether by long-term radical systems change such as transition to an economy that does not rely on burning of fossil fuels (post-carbon economy). The current usage largely refers to the first option. As the term carbon neutral tends to be strongly associated with carbon dioxide (CO2), the term climate neutral, that includes other greenhouse gases is now increasingly adopted to communicate their cumulative impact on global warming and climate crisis. The 2018 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report, Global warming of 1.5˚C, highlighted that to avoid irreversible damage to global populations and the planet, we must become carbon neutral in all areas of life by 2050.^(1-3)

See also: Carbon offsetting, Decarbonization, Global heating, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Kyoto Protocol, Paris Agreement, United Nations Fashion Industry Charter on Climate Action.

The practice of carbon offsetting is a compensatory action that offers individuals, businesses, and other organizations the option to balance their carbon footprint by purchasing carbon credits (carbon offsets) that fund projects focused at reducing emissions in developing countries. The principle of carbon offsetting is largely underpinned by the targets set in the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement, linked with a decision to enable industrialized countries to meet part of their commitment to reducing their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (or their GHG caps) by investing in greenhouse gas reduction in the developing world. However, offset programs, including the United Nations Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), have been criticized for not delivering the required carbon reductions. It can also be argued that carbon offsets are an avoidance of the principle of accountability and a distraction from the true commitment to reducing own carbon footprint. By trading individual and corporate social responsibility (CSR) for financial transactions, carbon offsets perpetuate the status quo as they endorse the belief that individuals and companies can buy themselves out of their contribution to climate crisis. Some of these issues are addressed by the emerging concept of carbon insetting, that invites a more holistic approach to reducing negative social and environmental impacts through interventions in core business and across own supply chains.^(1-8)

See also: Carbon neutral, Global inequality, Ecological footprint, Systems thinking, Paradigm change, Systems change, Sustainable development.

See Climate change, Climate crisis, Climate emergency.

Climate change refers to persistent changes (longer than a decade) in climate caused by either natural causes or human activities. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) defines climate change as "a change of climate that is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods".⁽¹⁾ It is increasingly highlighted that the term climate change no longer reflects the gravity of the situation and the adverse effects of the changing climate on people and planet. As a result, the terms climate crisis, climate emergency and climate breakdown are now adopted to communicate the urgency of the situation and to mobilize to action.^(2-5)

See also: Global warming, Global heating, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Planetary boundaries.

Climate crisis, or climate breakdown, describes the devastating effects of climate change on people and planet. Climate crisis is caused by human actions such as burning of fossil fuels, which lead to high concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere and result in the greenhouse effect and global warming. As a result, we face rising temperatures and increasing incidence of extreme weather, heavy rainfall and severe drought in multiple regions, rising sea levels, loss of biodiversity and extinction of entire ecosystems. As the climate crisis accelerates, water supply, food security, human health, and livelihoods, are also increasingly affected.

See also: Climate emergency, Global heating, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), CO2 emissions, Irreversibility, Global inequality, Planetary boundaries.

Climate emergency, or planetary emergency, is a declaration of the gravity of climate crisis and the imminent global consequences of human-made global warming and climate change. Climate emergency is defined as “a situation in which urgent action is required to reduce or halt climate change and avoid potentially irreversible environmental damage resulting from it”.⁽¹⁾ The term has been listed by the Oxford English Dictionary as the Word of the Year 2019. In November of the same year, 11000 scientists issued a warning that “planet Earth is facing a climate emergency”, largely linked to the “excessive consumption of the wealthy lifestyle”.⁽²⁾ The urgency to act has also been amplified by global grass-roots movements such as Extinction Rebellion (XR)⁽³⁾ or Fridays for Future⁽⁴⁾ begun by teenage activist Greta Thunberg⁽⁵⁾, that gave rise to worldwide declarations of climate emergency by local and national governments.⁽⁶⁾ Yet, while declarations are critical in raising awareness and alerting global leaders to public concern, they need to be followed by emergency response and radical changes in the patterns of economic growth, production, and consumption. In January 2020, The Club of Rome, who first called for such a response in 1972 in its report The Limits to Growth, launched its Planetary Emergency Plan – an action plan to avoid a catastrophe and the existential risk to humanity.⁽⁷⁾ The plan calls for major steps in three areas: 1. transforming energy systems, 2. shifting to a circular economy, and 3. creating a just and equitable society founded in human and ecological well-being.⁽⁸⁾

See also: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Extinction, Irreversibility, Global inequality, Planetary boundaries, Paradigm change, Systems change, Post-growth economy.

Decarbonization is a process of reducing the individual, organizational, national, and global carbon footprint. The 2018 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report, Global warming of 1.5˚C, highlighted that radical decarbonization is the only way of avoiding catastrophic consequences of climate change and that the current rate of reducing our greenhouse gas (GHGs) emissions is insufficient. To avert irreversible damage to natural and human systems around the world, we must cut our emissions by half before 2030 and reach net zero emissions by 2050. ^(1,2)

See also: Carbon neutral, Carbon offsetting, Ecological footprint, Fossil fuels, Greenhouse effect, Global warming, Climate crisis, Global heating, Planetary boundaries.

Deforestation is clearing of a forest and its conversion to another, non-forest use. Examples include farmland, grazing land for livestock for meat and leather industries, logging for the wood and paper industry, extraction of palm oil for the food industry, cosmetics products and detergents, or expansion of urban areas. Deforestation is also caused by wildfires, linked to a combination of human and natural factors, which both contribute to, and are intensified by, global warming. To date, around 17% of Amazon rainforest has been lost to deforestation,⁽¹⁾ and researchers now estimate that the tipping point after which parts of Amazon would be changed to non-forest ecosystems is between 20-25%.⁽²⁾ Deforestation critically affects global carbon balances. On the one hand it releases CO2 into the atmosphere (especially through burning used for fast clearance), and on the other it reduces areas that can absorb large quantities of global greenhouse gases (GHGs) and CO2 emissions through the process of photosynthesis. In this way, it both contributes to climate change and reduces the means to mitigate its effects. Lost protection of canopies disrupts local water cycles and results in land degradation that can lead to soil erosion. As a result, local ecosystems, biodiversity and wildlife are also critically affected; a number of species are now in danger of extinction. In addition, clearing of large forest areas displaces the communities that rely on them for shelter and subsistence, which results in migration, exploitation, and social conflict.^(1-6)

See also: Land use, Irreversibility, Carbon footprint, Endangered species, Planetary boundaries.

Also referred to as environmental footprint, ecological footprint refers to the environmental resources that a population consumes. Measurement of ecological footprint enables estimation of the requirements of a specific population or economy on the consumption of resources and assimilation of waste over an area of productive land.⁽¹⁾ This includes use of agricultural and grazing land, fisheries, built-up land, forest areas, and carbon demands on land. Since 2006, the global Earth Overshoot Day marks the day when the annual demand for environmental resources exhausts the resources that can be regenerated that year.⁽²⁾ In 2019, the Earth Overshoot Day fell on July 29. It should be noted that there are vast differences in ecological footprint between different countries and also between different social groups within countries, which is a reflection of global inequality.

See also: CO2 emissions, Greenhouse gases (GHGs), Fossil fuels, Carbon footprint, Carbon neutral, Carbon offsetting, Decarbonization, Global warming, Greenhouse effect, Climate change.

An ecosystem is a system of all living organisms within an area and the way in which they interact with their environment and with each other. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines ecosystem as "a functional unit consisting of living organisms, their non-living environment and the interactions within and between them".⁽¹⁾ Notably, most current ecosystems are now affected by human actions.

See also: Biodiversity, Deforestation, Extinction, Irreversibility, Land use, Land degradation, Microplastics, Sea level, Planetary boundaries

See Ecological footprint.

Extinction is a process when a species is extinguished and so permanently lost. While extinction of species is a natural process, it is estimated that its current rate is 1000 times higher than natural rate,^(1,2) mainly due to effects of global warming, deforestation and climate change. The current rates of extinction are accelerating at a rate unprecedented in the human history.^(3,4) This human-induced mass extinction of species, with its implications for biodiversity loss, irreversible damage to entire ecosystems and the related risks for the worldwide population, sparked the global campaign and do-it-together movement Extinction Rebellion (XR) as well as worldwide declarations of climate emergency.

See also: Ecosystem, Wildlife, Endangered species, Climate crisis, Sea level, Microplastics, Land use, Land degradation, Planetary boundaries, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

Fossil fuels are fuels generated from fossilized hydrocarbon deposits such as remains of plants and other organisms. Fossil fuels include coal, crude oil and natural gas. All of these, because of their origins, have a high carbon content. Extraction, transport and burning of fossil fuels all generate harmful levels of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and emissions (especially CO2) that significantly contribute to global warming and climate crisis. In addition, a high proportion of these emissions are absorbed by the global oceans, which results in acidification of seawater and also has damaging effects on the biodiversity of marine ecosystems as well as on coastal communities.^(1,2)

See also: CO2 emissions, Carbon footprint, Carbon neutral, Decarbonization, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

Global heating is a term adopted to communicate the seriousness of the climate crisis and the urgent need to address it. According to Professor Richard Betts from the UK Met Office, a leading climate change specialist, the term is also more accurate than global warming. While ‘warming’ relates to changes in temperature, ‘heating’ reflects energy flows (heat is energy). Human actions that increase the concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere do in fact change the energy flows between the Earth and space.

See also: Climate emergency. ^(1,2)

The global character of climate change is reflected in its impact on global communities. Yet, those least responsible for the climate crisis are often the most vulnerable and unequipped to deal with the threats posed by extreme weather, natural disasters, rising sea levels or tropical and vector-borne diseases. Small island states, low-lying coastal areas, mountain regions that face glacial melting and also dryland and desert regions, are already severely affected by the risk of climate-related displacement.^(1,2) The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) estimates that the average of 21.5 million people have lost their homes every year since 2008 due to sudden weather-related hazards such as floods, storms, wildfires and extreme temperatures.⁽³⁾

See also: Equality, Equity, Human rights, Social costs, Respect, Well-being, Sustainable development.

Global warming is the long-term increase in global temperatures in comparison to pre-industrial levels (currently defined as 1850-1900).⁽¹⁾ Global mean surface temperatures (GMST) are averaged over a period of 30 years and they have been rising at the fastest rate in recorded history since the mid-20th century, primarily due to human actions such as burning of fossil fuels.^(2,3,4) The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) warns that we have only until 2030 to avert the increase of global temperatures to a level that would significantly worsen prospects for future generations. Some scientists propose that terms like global heating⁽⁵⁾ or Hothouse Earth⁽⁶⁾ now more accurately reflect the unprecedented acceleration of temperatures, the combined effects of global warming on the energy balance of the planet, and the resulting future risks for life on Earth.

See also: Greenhouse gases (GHGs), CO2 emissions, Greenhouse effect, Climate change, Climate crisis, Climate emergency, Extinction, Global inequality, Irreversibility, Planetary boundaries.

The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the Earth's atmosphere. Greenhouse gases, clouds and (to some extent) aerosols absorb radiation from the surface of the Earth and emit infrared radiation in all directions.⁽¹⁾ Because of their high concentration caused by human actions and industrial emissions, greenhouse gases restrict the passages that allow infrared radiation to escape into space. As a result, the radiation remains in the lower atmosphere and causes global warming and climate change.

See also: CO2 emissions, Carbon footprint, Carbon neutral, Carbon offsetting, Decarbonization, Fossil fuels, Global heating, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

Greenhouse gases are gases in the Earth's atmosphere that absorb heat from the sun. The key greenhouse gases include water vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4) and ozone (O3). If the concentrations of these gases are well balanced, they make the climate on Earth habitable. However, human interference, especially burning of fossil fuels, has led to high concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This causes a greenhouse effect, meaning that heat is trapped close to the surface of the Earth which leads to global warming.

See also: CO2 emissions, Global heating, Carbon footprint, Carbon neutral, Carbon offsetting, Decarbonization, Climate change, Climate crisis, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.

Indigenous rights are the human, civil, and legal rights that respond to the specific conditions of indigenous peoples (also known as tribal peoples, native peoples, aboriginal peoples or First Nations), who have historically suffered from unjust practices including genocide, enslavement, forced relocation, physical attacks, exploitation, eviction, discrimination, marginalization, and forced cultural and social assimilation. Indigenous peoples are most commonly defined as those with “a historical continuity with pre-invasion and pre-colonial societies that developed on their territories, consider themselves distinct from other sectors of the societies now prevailing in those territories, or parts of them. They form at present non-dominant sectors of society and are determined to preserve, develop and transmit to future generations their ancestral territories, and their ethnic identity, as the basis of their continued existence as peoples, in accordance with their own cultural patterns, social institutions and legal systems.”^(3,4) The rights of indigenous communities therefore include the right to self-determination, right to their land and resources, preservation of their social and cultural integrity by retaining the diversity of traditional knowledge, language, spiritual traditions, medicine and customs, and also their inclusion in local and international decision-making processes. While these and other related rights have been recognized in international treaties such as the International Labour Organization’s Convention n◦169 (1989) and the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2007), the everyday reality of the estimated 370 million indigenous peoples in more than 90 countries⁽¹⁾ is often radically different. This is alarming also in the context of the climate crisis, as research shows that traditional knowledge of indigenous peoples enables long-term sustainable land use and balanced ecosystem management.^(1-3,9) The traditional indigenous territories are home to more than 80% of the planet’s biodiversity, they are rich in natural resources and the forests managed by indigenous communities contain over 20% of global carbon stored above ground.⁽¹⁾ Yet, many of those who defend their land from invasion by multinational corporations, extraction projects and other modes of exploitation, now more than ever face harassment, physical violence and murder.^(6,10,11) Due to their direct dependence on local natural resources, indigenous communities are among those most vulnerable to the impacts of global warming and climate change.^(1-11)

See also: Human rights, Global inequality, Decarbonization, Deforestation, Ecological footprint, Extinction, Land degradation, Sea level, Globalization, Cultural appropriation, Decolonization, Diversity, Interdependence, Localism, Resilience.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is the United Nations body that assesses the science related to climate change. Founded in 1988, IPCC produces regular reports that inform policymakers about the latest results of scientific research and identify areas where future research is needed. Its aim is to inform decision-making on tackling potential future risks and negotiating international strategies for mitigating and adapting to climate change.⁽¹⁾ The 2018 IPCC report, Global warming of 1.5˚C, highlighted that the current rate of reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) is insufficient to achieve the aim of keeping global warming to the 1.5˚C set in the Paris Agreement.⁽²⁾ Only half a degree higher temperature rise will have catastrophic irreversible consequences for natural and human systems around the world. Limiting warming to 1.5˚C is still possible, but it requires revolutionary changes in all areas of life, especially in management of land, energy, industry, buildings, cities and behaviors. We must cut our emissions by half before 2030 and reach net zero emissions by 2050.⁽³⁾

See also: CO2 emissions, Carbon footprint, Carbon neutral, Carbon offsetting, Decarbonization, Global heating, Kyoto Protocol, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Paradigm change, Systems change.

Irreversibility refers to a point when the recovery of a disturbed system to its original state takes significantly longer than the time it took for it to get into its disturbed state.⁽¹⁾ At the United Nations General Assembly High-Level Meeting in March 2019, the leaders were warned that "just over a decade is all that remains to stop irreversible damage from climate change" that could result in a catastrophe.⁽²⁾

See also: Climate change, Climate crisis, Climate emergency, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Planetary boundaries.

The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty adopted in 1997 to pursue the objectives of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). It contains legally binding commitments for industrialized (mostly OECD) countries and countries with economies in transition to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs). The Kyoto Protocol came into force in 2005, and in its first commitment period between 2008-2012 the signatories agreed to reduce their emissions by at least 5% below the pre-1990 levels. The second commitment period of 2013-2020, with more ambitious targets of reducing emissions by 18%, was agreed in 2012. Also known as the Doha Amendment, this second commitment period has not yet taken effect as it has not reached the required minimum of 144 ratifications. (NB: Valid at the time of writing, January 2020).

See also: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

Land degradation is the decline of land surface, including biodiversity loss and damage to ecosystems, largely caused by human activities. Land degradation currently causes around 23% reduction of productivity across the world’s surface⁽¹⁾ and experts estimate that around 3.2 billion people are negatively affected by its consequences.⁽²⁾ The erosion of soil from agricultural fields significantly exceeds the rate of soil formation. Land degradation is exacerbated by climate change, especially in low-lying coastal areas affected by further soil erosion and contamination as a result of rising sea levels.^(1-3)

See also: Land use, Deforestation, Global inequality, Planetary boundaries.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) explains land use as “the total arrangements, activities and inputs undertaken in a certain land cover type (a set of human actions)”.⁽¹⁾ This includes the ways in which land is used for social and economic activities such as farming, grazing, extraction of timber or urban development. Land management and land use play a key role in climate change, because human actions such as deforestation significantly affect land cover, cause land degradation, and reduce soil fertility. This has cumulative damaging effects for biodiversity, health of local ecosystems, species extinction, and human ability to adapt to climate change, because land use affects local water balances, livelihoods, and the ability of natural systems to absorb global emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and CO2.^(1-3)

See also: Global warming, Greenhouse effect, Irreversibility, Sea level, Endangered species.

The term landfill scavengers, or ragpickers, refers to the urban poor who make a living by sifting through the solid waste in landfills, collecting and selling recyclable objects and materials with residual value, including plastic, paper, aluminum or textiles. Landfill scavenging provides livelihoods to those from the poorest sections of society who often cannot secure formal employment. In developing economies with insufficient infrastructure for dealing with escalating volumes of waste, such as India or Brazil, scavengers who daily rummage through landfills perform an important public health role and help mitigate the waste crisis. Yet, despite isolated attempts for improvement, their work largely lacks any regulations, security or health and safety measures. Landfill scavenging is mostly performed without any protective equipment, health and safety training and it often includes child labor. Landfill scavengers thus offer an alarming example of global inequality, where those with the least share in economy, economic growth and overconsumption, are most directly exposed to their negative consequences.^(1-3)

See also: Urbanization, Poverty, Globalization, Overconsumption, Modern slavery, Human rights, Health hazards, Externalized costs, Social costs.

See Extinction.

Microplastics are plastic particles less than 5mm in size. They are increasingly omnipresent in the environment, mainly as a result of microfiber pollution from washing synthetic clothing and the decomposition of plastic packaging waste. Microplastics are a major source of ocean pollution; it is estimated that as much as 20-35% of all primary source microplastics in the oceans are from synthetic textiles and the tendency is increasing.^(1,2) This has damaging effects on marine and coastal wildlife that ingests the miniature particles. As they enter food chains, microplastics are also potentially detrimental to human health. They have also been found in drinking, tap and bottled water, and while no direct health effects on human health have been confirmed to date, research on health effects of microplastics continues (NB: Valid at the time of writing, January 2020).^(1-5)

See also: Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Extinction.

Non-renewable resources are natural resources that do not have the capacity to regrow or replenish their original levels after exploitation, within a human timescale. Overwithdrawal of non-renewable resources such as fossil fuels will result in levels beyond which their regeneration is impossible.⁽¹⁾ The term non-renewable resources is often used in connection with non-renewable sources of energy, such as coal, oil and natural gas.

See also: Renewable resources, Energy use, Carbon footprint, Decarbonization, Irreversibility, Planetary boundaries.

The Paris Agreement builds on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and its core aim is "to strengthen the global response to the threat of climate change".⁽¹⁾ It was adopted by the UNFCCC signatories at the 21st Conference of the Parties (COP 21) in Paris in 2015, and it came into effect in November 2016. The main focus of the agreement is on keeping the increase in global temperatures well below 2˚C while also taking all efforts to limit it to 1.5˚C above the pre-industrial levels (currently defined as 1850-1900).⁽²⁾ With its commitment to global equity, the agreed course of action includes support for developing countries as they respond to climate change and deal with its environmental and social impacts.

See also: Global warming, Climate crisis, Global inequality, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Kyoto Protocol.

Planetary boundaries are a concept developed in 2009 by the team of international scientists led by Johan Rockström, then the director of the Stockholm Resilience Centre. The team defined nine quantitative planetary boundaries within which the planet and the human population can continue to thrive, yet their crossing could mean an abrupt environmental change and irreversible and potentially catastrophic damage to global natural and human systems.^(1,2) The mutually interdependent planetary boundaries include: 1. Stratospheric ozone depletion, 2. Biodiversity loss and extinctions, 3. Chemical pollution and the release of novel entities, 4. Climate change, 5. Ocean acidification, 6. Freshwater consumption and the global hydrological cycle, 7. Land system change, 8. Nitrogen and phosphorus flows to the biosphere and oceans, and 9. Atmospheric aerosol loading.⁽²⁾ Planetary boundaries scientists estimate that we have already crossed three of the boundaries – climate change, rate of biodiversity loss and global nitrogen cycle changes – which means that “planetary risks we’re facing are so large that business as usual is not an option”.⁽³⁾ Since its conception, the planetary boundaries framework has become influential in international policymaking, including the formulation of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDG).^(1-4)

See also: Ecological footprint, Biodiversity, Climate change, Climate crisis, Climate emergency, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

See Plastics.

See Plastics.

Plastics are man-made materials with a polymeric (macromolecular) structure that lends them their moldable properties and plasticity. The majority of plastics in circulation are fossil-based organic polymers obtained from petrochemicals. Emerging alternatives broadly known as bioplastics (biopolymers derived from renewable sources such as for example cellulose, vegetable fats and oils, corn, pea or potato starch, sugars from sugar cane and sugar beets), still constitute only a very small fraction of the market. There are multiple categories of plastic, depending on the constituting polymeric structure. Some of the most commonly used plastics include polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), polyvinylchloride (PVC), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester (PES), polyamide (PA) and acrylic (PC).

The production of plastics has seen an exponential increase since the 1950s, to the extent that the volume of plastic in use has become almost synonymous with economic growth. While plastics have many beneficial properties, including light weight and durability, the same properties have caused severe environmental, social and health crisis linked to global plastic pollution of marine, freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems. Significant proportions of plastics, especially packaging, become waste within the same year and often within the same month that they were produced.^{(1, 2)}

While the toxicity of pure plastics is relatively low, most plastic materials include chemical additives such as stabilizers, colorants, antistatic treatments, flame retardants, plasticizers or reinforcements. Many of these contain toxic compounds that can leach into the environment and contaminate soil, air and water. They can also be responsible for direct human exposure through release from plastic food packaging. While plastic recycling has become a popular option in addressing the plastic pollution crisis, it is also important to note that most plastic materials are still either incinerated or end up in landfills and illegal dumps,⁽¹⁾ where they take several centuries to degrade. It is likely that they can never be fully assimilated into natural systems, causing persistent pollution as they weaken and break into microplastics and nanoplastics. In addition, inappropriate recycling and recovery processes, especially in countries with lack of sufficient infrastructure and regulations (such as China, major plastic producers and recyclers⁽²⁾), can contaminate recycled products and cause serious health hazards for workers and inhabitants of the surrounding areas.⁽³⁾ Recycling merely delays plastic disposal, and plastic waste can be avoided only by more long-term systemic solutions that will diminish the throwaway mindset and the market logic that enables unlimited manufacture of materials and products that pose serious risks to human health and the environment.^(1-9)

See also: Plastic restriction, Waste classification, Microfiber pollution, Externalized costs, Carbon, Fossil fuels, Synthetic materials, Globalization, Global inequality, Circular economy, Closed-loop recycling, Extended producer responsibility, Anti-Waste and Circular Economy Bill, Ellen MacArthur Foundation

The term regenerative refers to the capability of ecosystems to self-regulate and self-maintain and so adapt to change and interference.⁽¹⁾ As the capacity of natural systems to regenerate has been severely affected by human actions, the need to restore, renew and revitalize ecosystems is one of the key priorities in combating climate change. This can be achieved through approaches such as regenerative and restorative land use and agriculture, that combine conservation and rehabilitation practices to foster resilience and improve the health of ecosystems. The concept of regeneration and restoration is now also increasingly applied in design and economics.^(2,3)

See also: Regenerative agriculture, Renewable resources, Non-renewable resources, Biodiversity, Extinction, Irreversibility, Planetary boundaries.

Regenerative agriculture is a farming method that combines conservation and rehabilitation practices to restore, renew, and revitalize agricultural land in the ways that recognize and value the mutual interdependence of all human and natural systems. In contrast to conventional industrial agriculture methods, based on continuous extraction and depletion of resources, regenerative agriculture promotes practices such as: regeneration of topsoil and enhancing soil fertility; increasing biodiversity; improving water cycles; capturing carbon in soil, improving carbon capture through better feedstock and better livestock management, strengthening resilience to climate change; increasing yields over time; and revitalizing connections between farms and their surrounding communities. As the capacity of natural systems to regenerate has been severely affected by human actions, including intensive agricultural land use, a holistic ecosystem approach to farming is one of the key priorities in ensuring long-term food security.^(1-4)

See also: Deforestation, Renewable resources, Non-renewable resources, Global inequality, Extinction, Irreversibility, Planetary boundaries.

Renewable resources are natural resources that have the capacity to regrow or replenish their original levels after exploitation, within a human timescale. However, this capacity also hinges on responsible resource management. Overwithdrawal of renewable resources such as water, wood or food can result in levels beyond which their regeneration is impossible.⁽¹⁾ The term renewable resources is often used in connection with renewable sources of energy, such as solar, wind or geothermal power.

See also: Non-renewable resources, Energy use, Water use, Water scarcity, Water pollution, Planetary boundaries.

Rewilding is a large-scale conservation strategy based on the reintroduction of wildlife and extinct species into their original habitat, with the goal of restoring natural processes, increasing biodiversity and limiting human dominance in ecosystems. The concept originated in the US but during the last two decades has also gained considerable traction in Europe and worldwide. Rewilding probes the current boundaries of coexistence between human and natural habitats and envisages a long-term future of more healthy ecosystems with human-nature interactions based on mutual respect.^(1-5)

See also: Anthropocene, Biodiversity, Endangered species, Deforestation, Land degradation, Land use, Regenerative, Regenerative agriculture, Interdependence, Respect, Resilience.

Sea level (also referred to as Mean Sea Level) is an average level of the surface of the oceans. Sea level rise is among the consequences of global warming and climate change. As the global mean temperatures rise, melting ice sheets and land glaciers contribute to increased volumes of seawater. In addition, seawater expands as it warms. This makes coastal communities, cities, and islands particularly vulnerable to the risk of erosion, flooding, and soil contamination with salt. The loss of land and local habitat such as fish, birds, and plants, has adverse impact on food security and livelihoods. As a result, it is predicted that more and more coastal communities will be forced to relocate in the future.^(1,2,3)

See also: Global inequality, Land degradation, Climate crisis, Ecosystem.

Sustainability, in a broad sense, refers to the way of life in which human and natural systems co-exist in a balanced and non-destructive way that enables continuous prosperity and well-being for all. It is not a fixed state or a neatly defined goal. Instead, sustainability is an ongoing process that draws on the interdependence of culture, society, economy and the environment, while constantly considering how they affect each other. It is for this reason that we now recognize four elements of sustainability - cultural, social, environmental, and economic. All of these are critical for sustaining lifestyles that show an equal respect to the needs of the people and the planet. Cultural sustainability refers to the creating of an environment that values and cultivates diversity of cultural expressions relating to heritage, customs, beliefs, histories, and material culture practices. Social sustainability is seen as the ability of people to interact and collaborate at local, regional, national, and global levels, in ways that create and exemplify social cohesion and mutual respect. It considers places, communities, and organizations, both formal and informal, and their prosperity and well-being at present and in the future. Environmental sustainability means recognizing our connectedness to and dependence on nature and cultivating lifestyles that fit well within the limits of planetary boundaries. Economic sustainability requires economic practices that guarantee decent working conditions and economic prosperity for all, without compromising any of the other elements of sustainability.^(1-5)

See also: Anthropocene, Growth, Sustainable development, Systems thinking, Ecological footprint, Global inequality, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Irreversibility, Regenerative, Economic growth, Accountability, Decolonization, Post-growth economy.

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international treaty agreed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (also known as Earth Summit) in Rio de Janeiro. The core aim of UNFCCC is to prevent "dangerous human interference with the climate system"⁽¹⁾ and to reduce the concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere. The UNFCCC was followed by the Kyoto Protocol (1997), which introduced legally binding commitments for the OECD countries and countries with economy in transition to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. The Paris Agreement from 2015 later set the target of keeping the rise in global temperatures well below 2˚C, while taking all efforts to limit it to 1.5˚C above the pre-industrial levels (currently defined as 1850-1900⁽²⁾).

See also: Global warming, Climate change, Climate crisis, Climate emergency, Carbon footprint, Decarbonization, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

Urbanization refers to the population shift from rural to urban areas, often driven by economic motivations and access to the labor market. According to the latest UN data, more than half the global population currently live in urban areas and the proportion of urban residents is estimated to rise to 68% by 2050.⁽¹⁾ While North America, Latin America and the Caribbean, followed by Europe are currently the most the world’s most urbanized regions (with 82%, 81% and 74% of urban residents respectively), China, India and Nigeria are the countries with the fastest rates of urbanization. Together, Asia and Africa are expected to increase their urban populations by another 2.5 billion of people by 2050.⁽¹⁾ The accelerating rates of urbanization are linked with a series of interconnected environmental, social, cultural and economic issues. These include, but are not limited to, deforestation, loss of biodiversity and cropland, high energy use and CO2 emissions, health hazards resulting from heavy air pollution, noise pollution, accelerating consumption and waste generation, lack of access to adequate housing, social care and health care services, rising inequality, violence, well-being and mental health issues such as loneliness and depression. For example, in an effort to combat poverty and drive economic growth, rapid urbanization in China has led to the creation of world- leading megacities and urban areas of unprecedented scale, attracting millions of migrant workers and considerable foreign capital, yet at the same time grappling with all the above issues. The heavy smog in Beijing that has repeatedly brought the city to a standstill, has become a notorious example of the toll that local transport and industry take on the health of people and the environment. As global urban expansion is an ongoing project, with global cities already accounting for 70% of CO2 emissions⁽²⁾, the climate emergency makes it imperative that urban growth is balanced with respect to its environmental and social costs.^(1-9)

See also: Global inequality, Growth, Land degradation, Land use, Water pollution, Waste classification, Globalization, Sustainable development.

The indigenous fauna and flora of a region.

See also: Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Extinction.