The power of fashion is in its double role as both a reflection and a vanguard of its time. As more and more people are taking bold steps to tackle the climate crisis, fashion needs to lead the way and use its ability to tell compelling stories to amplify the impact of such actions. The definitions of fashion are also changing in these turbulent times, and so we must first ask what kind of fashion does the future need.

The sector increasingly acknowledges its accountability for global heating and social and environmental injustice. In the current climate emergency, the industry needs an urgent and radical paradigm change to show a firm commitment to respect and care for people and planet. The concept of sustainable development recognizes that meeting present needs must not compromise the well-being of future generations, and so the logic of constant growth and overconsumption in the finite limits of this planet is no longer an option. However, while the framework for sustainable development has been in place for over thirty years, it has not yet brought the desired results. We are still witnessing acceleration of unsustainable practices that do little to challenge the politics and the business logic that are at the core of the climate crisis. Instead, they carry on with a false premise that business can go on as usual while the planet will be saved. It is now clear that the last thirty years of incremental changes in sustainable materials, resource efficiency and recycling did not bring the desired results. Innovation in products, materials, manufacturing processes and end-of-life solutions are all insignificant in a system where the rates of production, consumption and waste generation constantly escalate. Therefore, to make a true impact in fashion and sustainability, we must stop focusing on temporary fixes and symptoms and instead commit to finding long-term solutions that address the underlying causes of the extremely high environmental and social costs of fashion.

We must now be bold in questioning the status quo of the industry that still prioritizes profit over vital social and environmental concerns. We need to revolutionize the ways of thinking and practices of design, production, communication, wearing and enjoying fashion that value the diversity, prosperity, well-being and interdependence of human and natural systems. This means a radical “unlearning of fashion-as-we-know-it” by uprooting the logic of endless growth, overproduction and overconsumption. We need to find new and richer ways of enjoying and giving value to fashion.

- Centre for Sustainable Fashion

Accountability is an aspect of governance which requires that public and private organizations as well as individuals assume the responsibility for their actions and impact. In the context of the fashion industry, accountability means that companies must identify, assess, and measure the impact of all their activities on people and the environment worldwide. The principles of accountability extend well beyond compliance with minimum legal requirements. Accountability relies on companies' voluntary commitment to deliver on high social and environmental standards in their operations, especially with regards to human rights and sustainable development. The relatability of fashion makes it particularly well placed to lead by example in its accountability.^(1-4)

See also: Externalized costs, Stakeholders, Respect, Traceability, Transparency, Supply chain, Corporate social responsibility (CSR), Trust.

Care means attentiveness and consideration for people, things, and the environment. To care means to take responsibility for the cause and effect of our own actions, recognizing the interconnectedness of the world and the human agency in it. The importance of care in relation to designed objects (these would include clothing and other fashion products) was emphasized by the designer and educator Victor Papanek in his influential book Design for the Real World (1971). Papanek argued that normalizing disposability of things we use has damaging consequences for the environment, social justice and also for our personal relationships. “Throwing away furniture, transportation vehicles, clothing, and appliances”, he believed, “may soon lead us to feel that marriages (and other personal relationships) are throwaway items as well, and that on a global scale, countries and, indeed, entire subcontinents are disposable like Kleenex”.⁽¹⁾ As the effects of the climate crisis caused by the culture of disposability in the Global North are now acutely affecting multiple regions in the Global South, Papanek’s view of care seems especially relevant, not least in relationship to fashion.^(1-3)

See also: Respect, Well-being, Interdependence, Global inequality, Accountability, Corporate social responsibility (CSR), Systems thinking.

Collaboration is an active strategy of working together and sharing knowledge, resources and experiences between individuals, teams, and organizations to achieve a shared goal. In the context of fashion, pre-competition collaboration between micro, small and large players across all levels of the value chain is now considered a key enabler of the necessary systems change towards more sustainable ways of producing, communicating, selling, using and engaging with fashion in the future.^(1-7)

See also: Accountability, Care, Corporate social responsibility (CSR), Paradigm change, Prosperity, G7 Fashion Pact, United Nations Fashion Industry Charter for Climate Action.

Corporate social responsibility is an evolving concept of corporate governance that requires businesses to extend their responsibility from managing their own resources, to also considering the long-term impact of their practices on the resources of the society, including environmental resources. The concept has especially evolved since the 1990s with the global expansion of supply chains. Its more mature versions demand that companies behave proactively, using their values, day to day practices, operations as well as a proportion of profits to contribute to positive social change. Corporate social responsibility requires long-term strategies with regards to workplace environment and company culture, the entire supply chains, customer base, wider communities, and the environment. It is underpinned by triple bottom line accountancy, that measures business performance not only on financial transactions and profit (bottom line) but also on its impacts on people (social bottom line) and the environment (environmental bottom line).^(1-4)

See also: Accountability, Respect, Externalized costs, Environmental costs, Social costs, BCorp.

Craft of use is the ability to draw a deep satisfaction from resourceful ways of wearing, repairing, re-making and looking after old and familiar clothes. The concept of craft of use resulted from an international research project led by Professor Kate Fletcher, collecting people’s stories of their favorite clothes across six countries and three continents. Fletcher argues that while clothes are sold as products, they are lived as a process. Craft of use highlights that the current fashion system lacks a long-term perspective and ignores the connection between the making and use of clothing. The ways in which people engage with and enjoy clothes are often far removed from the constant turnover of pristine looks that drives the prevailing fashion narrative. This is why understanding how clothes are worn, laundered, and cared for during their lifetime is key for a more sustainable fashion future. Craft of use offers an extended understanding of fashion that challenges the market-driven overconsumption, showing that satisfaction and pleasure can also come from lasting relationships with the clothes we already have.⁽¹⁾

See also: Post-growth fashion, Care, Diversity, Localism, Respect, Inclusion, Prosperity, Sufficiency, Well-being, Extending clothing lifetimes.

The term decolonization, in its literary sense, refers to the withdrawal of imperial powers from colonies and the restoration of political and economic independence to the colonized regions. At present, it is used especially in connection to the dismantling of European colonies in Africa, Asia, the Caribbean and the Pacific, after the 2nd World War. However, decolonization does not stop with reclaiming political and economic control. It is a complex and gradual process, that is never quite finished because the legacy of the colonial rule, especially with regards to culture, continues long after the emancipation took place. For this reason, the term decolonization is increasingly used to refer to the emancipation from cultural dominance, or what is sometimes called the ‘decolonization of mind’⁽¹⁾.^(1-4) The issue of decolonization is now also widely discussed in connection to fashion, highlighting that the Western fashion system has enforced a global fashion identity that is seen as a universal norm. The dominance of Western fashion decimated the diversity of other fashion expressions and suppressed the richness of indigenous fashion forms that do not fit into the Eurocentric aesthetic.^(5-9) The homogenized view of fashion also contributed to the loss of regional artisan and heritage crafts traditions with damaging knock-on effects on local economies, cultures and the environment. The global climate crisis urgently requires that we “imagine and propose ‘differently’ dressed worlds”⁽⁶⁾ that allow for multiple fashion narratives, as the global expansion of the Western fashion system has proved socially, culturally and environmentally unsustainable.⁽⁸⁾ The narratives presented in the fashion media have a critical role to play in this respect, as they can potentially transform and decolonize the fashion system from the inside out.⁽⁹⁾

See also: Inclusion, Localism, Respect, Prosperity, Interdependence, Globalization, Global inequality, Cultural appropriation, Indigenous rights, Sustainability, Sustainable fashion.

See Post-growth economy.

Diversity refers to the recognition of and respect for the differences between individuals, communities and cultures. These may include, but are not limited to, differences in race, ethnicity, culture, religious beliefs, gender, sexual orientation, marital status, age, physical abilities, health issues, political views, value systems and socio-economic status. All such differences may be reflected in a variety of perceptions and unique individual expressions. Exploring and nurturing the differences in a safe environment enables everyone to make a valuable contribution to their community and society as a whole. In the context of fashion, diversity also means creating an environment where multiple narratives and forms of aesthetic expression can flourish side by side. This can include a shift in focus from runways and star designers to equally considering the subjective experiences of people who make and wear clothes.^(1-2) Diversity also requires preserving the rich traditions of fashion and textile production, many of which are now close to extinction due to the competition of cheaper, homogenous, mass-manufactured products. Fostering diversity enables us to draw strength from multiple sources and so it enables agility and long-term resilience.

See also: Inclusion, Human rights, Equality, Equity, Interdependence, Well-being, Localism, Heritage crafts, Decolonization.

See Sustainable fashion.

The term economy, with its Greek, Latin and French origins, refers to the management of resources by a community.⁽¹⁾ The most common, current understanding of economy relates to the condition of a community, nation or region with respect to trade factors, including production and consumption of goods and services and financial transactions. A broader, and longer understood meaning of the term encompasses the human resources and the natural world as a whole, with the economy of nature relating to the interdependence of all living things.⁽²⁾ In the words of scientist and environmental activist David Suzuki, “economy is a human construct, we invented it”.⁽³⁾ This means that we can change the rules of economy but not the rules of ecology, as “those are nature’s laws”.⁽³⁾

See also: Growth, Environmental costs, Social costs, Externalized costs, Post-growth economy, Prosperity, Sustainable development, Resilience.

Equality is defined in Article 1 of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights which states that “all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights”.⁽¹⁾ Equal treatment should therefore be guaranteed to all people irrespective of their nationality, place of residence, gender, national or ethnic origin, color, religion, language, or any other status. The principle of equality is closely linked to the protection against discrimination on the grounds of any of the above categories. While extensive legislation to ensure equal treatment of all human beings exists on national and international levels, the experience of hundreds of millions of people worldwide sadly does not yet reflect the commitments set out in the law^(1-4).

See also: Equity, Diversity, Inclusion, Human rights, Global inequality, Modern slavery, Living wage, Respect, Well-being, Decolonization, Indigenous rights.

The concept of equity is complementary to the principle of equality set out in the 1948 Universal Declaration for Human Rights. However, while equality means that all human beings deserve fairness in equal treatment, equal opportunities, and equal support, the concept of equity extends these values by also considering fairness and equality in terms of outcomes. This means recognizing that access to opportunities and the level of support people need may vary relative to individual circumstances. The concept of equity respects and acts on the existence of such variations, and therefore equitable treatment guarantees opportunities and support for people according to their individual needs.^(1,2)

See also: Diversity, Inclusion, Human rights, Global inequality, Modern slavery, Living wage, Respect, Well-being, Decolonization, Indigenous rights.

See Sustainable fashion.

Inclusion refers to the need to embrace human diversity and ensure that multiple voices and perspectives are covered in both micro and macro platforms, such as organizations, communities and entire societies. Inclusion enables individuals with diverse backgrounds, abilities, beliefs, and values to collaborate on common endeavors while expressing their individuality and feeling valued for their unique contributions. In the context of fashion, inclusion also means nurturing an environment where multiple narratives and forms of aesthetic expression can flourish side by side.^(1,2)

See also: Diversity, Equality, Equity, Respect, Care, Human rights, Well-being, Decolonization, Indigenous rights, Resilience.

Interdependence refers to the mutual dependence of all human and natural systems. The principle of interdependence is best explained in an extract from an ancient Sufi tale quoted by one of the key figures of systems thinking, Donella H. Meadows.⁽¹⁾ A story from the Tales of the Dervishes talks about people who were not able to see the whole elephant and so they made assumptions about it from the separate parts they were able to touch. As a result, those who felt its ear claimed that the elephant was “wide and broad, like a rug” others who touched the trunk believed it was “like a straight and hollow pipe” and yet others who touched the elephant’s leg said that it was “mighty and firm, like a pillar”.⁽¹⁾ The moral of the story is that focusing only on one part, in isolation from others, does not lead to an accurate understanding of the whole. Accordingly, each part has its place in relationship to others and together they contribute to the functioning of the whole.⁽¹⁾ In connection to fashion, interdependence means that fashion must not be seen in isolation from its cultural, social, and environmental implications. Recognizing the interdependence in fashion relies on acknowledging that fashion, in all its forms, is not a separate entity. It only exists in relationship to the people who make and wear it, and to the environment they live in.⁽²⁾

See also: Systems change.

The Hindi word jugaad (English resourcefulness, French système D, Portuguese gambiarra) refers to ingenious, frugal solutions that are driven by flexibility and improvisation even in the most challenging circumstances. Jugaad innovators are creative individuals who overcome issues with scarcity of capital, resources, or quality infrastructure, by simple yet effective problem solving that meets local needs at nominal cost. While jugaad initiatives are often motivated by economic, rather than cultural or environmental concerns, they tend to result in implicitly inclusive and sustainable solutions by doing “more with less”,⁽¹⁾ with respect to local context. Jugaad thinking is also intrinsic to global micro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs), who offer pioneering exemplars of small-scale business models that can redefine Western notions of growth, scale, and prosperity. The concept of jugaad, resourcefulness, système D or gambiarra, can therefore be understood as an agile creative mindset applied across personal and professional life to cope with adversity and limitations, especially in times of crisis.^(1-4)

See also: Resilience, Prosperity, Diversity, Economy, De-growth, Localism, Interdependence.

The concept of localism draws attention to the power of local responses to the wider global issues.⁽¹⁾ Localism emphasizes the value of geographical closeness and the need to nurture the informal forces rooted in regional traditions which can help local communities and natural systems to flourish in the face of global, mainly profit-driven economic decisions. In the context of fashion, localism stands in contrast to the global fashion system, by offering a decentralized version of making, using and caring for textiles and clothing. Personal contact here removes the distance between designers, producers and users, which enables richer ways of understanding materials and conditions of production by drawing on “local stories, myriad dress practices, and fewer goods”.⁽²⁾

See also: Diversity, Resilience, Inclusion, Decolonization, Indigenous rights, Post-growth economy, Post-growth fashion, Prosperity, Sufficiency, Trust, Sustainable fashion, Systems thinking, Craft clusters.

Paradigm change, or paradigm shift, is a fundamental change in perception and in ways of thinking in the face of new circumstances.⁽¹⁾ In the current climate emergency, the ways in which we design, make, communicate, sell, buy, use, and dispose of fashion products all need an urgent and radical paradigm change. We must all act on the fact that the ever-faster fashion cycles and constantly increasing volumes of fashion consumption and waste are entirely irreconcilable with the finite limits of our planet.

See also: Resilience, Systems change, Efficiency, Growth, Sustainable fashion, Sustainable development, Post-growth economy, Post-growth fashion, Systems thinking, Sustainable development.

Post-growth thinking is a branch of economic theory that draws attention to the fact that exponential economic growth within the finite resources of our planet is impossible without dire consequences for both people and the environment. While economic growth offers benefits in terms of improving quality of life, post-growth (de-growth) thinkers also emphasize that beyond a certain point it is detrimental to both human well-being and the planet. One of the pioneers of economics who considers human scale and allows prosperity without reliance on uninhibited growth, was the economist Fritz Schumacher, the author of Small is Beautiful: A Study of Economics as if People Mattered (1973). More recently, in his Prosperity Without Growth, based on research for the UK Sustainable Development Commission, Professor Tim Jackson argues that "either we must progressively squeeze the material content out of economic expansion, so that we can continue to grow our economies without trashing the planet, or we must learn to find prosperity without relying on economic growth to deliver it for us".^(2),(1-4)

See also: Planetary boundaries, Brundtland Report, Paradigm change, Systems thinking, Systems change, Post-growth fashion.

Post-growth fashion is a new narrative of fashion that offers an alternative to the market-driven overconsumption by focusing instead on the agency and satisfaction that people draw from care and long-term use of familiar clothes. Post-growth fashion draws on the post-growth economy and craft of use, both recognizing that neither economy nor fashion are isolated systems. They cannot exist outside the limits set by planetary boundaries or without a connection to people. Post-growth fashion values everyday, informal, and resourceful ways of engaging with clothes, where close connections between making, re-making and use enable richer experiences and more sustainable fashion futures.⁽¹⁾

See also: Localism, Paradigm change, Systems change, Interdependence, Prosperity, Sufficiency, Well-being, Diversity, Inclusion.

Prosperity is the state of thriving and an indicator of quality of life. While in purely economic terms, prosperity tends to be equaled with wealth, it is increasingly recognized that economic prosperity is an insufficient metric to reflect deeper dimensions of prosperity, such as decent and fulfilling work, health, life satisfaction, and well-being.^(1-3) In addition, the current climate emergency urgently requires that we decouple prosperity from exponential economic growth and depletion of natural resources, as both critically endanger all levels of prosperity for future generations.

See also: Growth, Post-growth economy, Well-being, Systems thinking, Paradigm change, Systems change, Sustainable development.

Resilience is the capacity of individuals, societies, cultures, economies, and ecosystems to reorganize and recover from change and disruption in a way that enables them to retain their identity and develop further. The Stockholm Resilience Centre explains that resilience “is about how humans and nature can use shocks and disturbances like a financial crisis or climate change to spur renewal and innovative thinking.”⁽¹⁾ Resilience thinking also means recognizing that human and natural ecosystems are closely interconnected, and both must operate within the limits of planetary boundaries. As a result, resilience is not about relying on the inner abilities of people or nature to bounce back from a crisis, because such self-regulation always happens in context. Instead, resilience is an interaction, it is “both about adapting to the external world and about being aware that in this process of adaptation the world is being reshaped”.⁽⁵⁾ The concept of resilience is widely used in psychology, sociology, sustainable development, disaster management and public policy-making. Applied to the fashion context, resilience relies on an acute awareness that fashion only exists in close relationship to the people who wear it and the planet whose resources it draws on. As we face the climate emergency, the fashion system needs to rethink and renew itself in a way that shows its accountability and respect to both.^(1-5)

See also: Paradigm change, Diversity, Systems thinking, Systems change, Regenerative, Interdependence, Collaboration, Prosperity, Well-being.

See Jugaad.

Respect is an attitude that shows careful consideration to self, others, and the environment, especially with regards to the cause and effect of one's own actions.

See also: Accountability, Care, Sustainable development, Equality, Equity, Diversity, Inclusion, Interdependence, Global inequality, Systems thinking, Human rights, Well-being.

The wider public awareness of the term sustainable development goes back to the 1987 publication of Our Common Future (also known as the Brundtland Report), commissioned by the World Commission on Environment and Development. The report defines sustainable development as "the development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs".⁽¹⁾ At the core of sustainable development is a recognition that the current strong connection between economic activities and environmental exploitation undermines the prospects of future generations. This is also reflected in the OECD’s (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development) adoption of the term environmental costs, that refers to "the actual or potential deterioration of natural assets due to economic activities".⁽²⁾ The United Nations set out their ambitions for sustainable development in their 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), with specific targets to be achieved by 2030.^(3,4) However, while the framework for sustainable development has been in place for over thirty years, it has not yet produced the desired results. We are still witnessing acceleration of unsustainable practices that do little to challenge the politics and the business logic that are at the center of the climate crisis. Instead, they carry on with a false premise that business can go on as usual while the planet will be saved.⁽⁵⁾

See also: Growth, Global inequality, Paradigm change, Systems change, Systems thinking, Post-growth economy, Prosperity, Well-being.

Sustainable fashion is a process of change in the ways of thinking and practices of design, production, communication, wearing and enjoying fashion, that values diversity, prosperity and well-being of both people and the environment. It highlights the interdependence of individual, social, environmental, cultural and economic implications of fashion, and so questions the status quo of the industry that still prioritizes profit over vital social and environmental concerns. While over the last thirty years sustainable fashion and its equivalents such as eco fashion or green fashion have entered the mainstream vocabulary, researchers highlight that not enough real progress has been achieved over this time.⁽⁵⁾ Innovation in products and materials, as well as improved efficiency in using resources are all insignificant while the rates of production, consumption and disposal of fashion products constantly keep increasing. To make a true impact in fashion and sustainability, we must therefore stop focusing on such temporary fixes and symptoms and instead commit to finding long-term solutions that address the underlying causes of waste and environmental and social costs of fashion.⁽⁶⁾ This means a radical “unlearning of fashion-as-we-know-it”⁽⁷⁾ by uprooting the logic of endless growth, overproduction and overconsumption, and instead finding new and richer ways of enjoying and giving value to fashion.^(1-8)

See also: Paradigm change, Systems change, Systems thinking, Post-growth economy, Sustainable materials, Fast fashion, Resilience, Sufficiency.

Systems change refers to an intentional transformation of the ways in which a system, such as an organization, industry, society or economy operate. Systems change focuses on the root causes of problems, instead of investing time and resources in temporary fixes that can only treat symptoms. Systems change draws on systems thinking, a recognition that all systems consist of parts which relate to each other and influence the way the whole system behaves across time.⁽¹⁾ This is why any attempt at resolving issues within a system must rely on seeing it as a whole and addressing the underlying values and goals, instead of just “tweaking parameters”.⁽²⁾ In the current climate emergency, fashion too urgently needs a systems change. It is now clear that the last thirty years of incremental changes in sustainable materials, resource efficiency and recycling did not bring about the desired results.^(2,5) All such improvements are lost in a system where the volume of production, consumption, and waste generation constantly escalate.⁽³⁾ What is therefore needed is a fundamental change in fashion’s current business model that relies on uninhibited growth and results in exploitation of both people and the environment. We need to find new and richer ways of enjoying and giving value to fashion. ^(1-5)

See also: Paradigm change, Sustainable fashion, Post-growth economy, Resilience, Interdependence.

In the current climate emergency, systems thinking refers to the urgent need to rethink our relationship with economic growth in a way that acknowledges and respects the vital interdependence of all life on the planet. Systems thinking draws on system dynamics and computer modeling to demonstrate how different parts of a system relate to each other and how they influence the entire system's behavior across time.⁽¹⁾ Donella H. Meadows, a prominent systems thinker and the lead author of the influential report The Limits to Growth (See Climate emergency; Growth), explains that systems thinking allows us to "hone our abilities to understand parts, see interconnections, and ask "what if" questions about possible future behaviors, and be creative and courageous about the system redesign".⁽²⁾ In this way, systems thinking can also offer answers for the future of the fashion industry. It enables us to look beyond piecemeal solutions such as new materials or closed-loop recycling that draw on the status quo. Instead, it focuses on core function and purpose, which facilitates a fundamental rethinking of the whole industry as a system.^(3,4) As Meadows argues, a holistic view of a system, as opposed to considering only its parts, helps us to see any system "as the source of its own problems" and so “find the courage and wisdom to restructure it”.⁽²⁾

See also: Paradigm change, Systems change, Post-growth economy, Post-growth fashion, Prosperity, Systems change.

The concept of sufficiency is integral to more sustainable fashion futures as it recognizes the irreconcilability of the finite limits of the planet with the infinitely increasing rates of production, consumption, and waste of fashion products. Sufficiency thinking acknowledges that material objects, including fashion and clothing, are integral to human culture and that, up to a certain point, they can increase life satisfaction and well-being. At the same time, overconsumption of material things is detrimental not only to humans but crucially also to the environment. Sufficiency is also discussed in the context of circular economy, where it refers to business strategies that actively seek solutions for managing demand and reducing volumes of production and consumption. Examples of such solutions include alternative business models that promote more effective use of resources through re-use, sharing or rental, as well as through raising public awareness of all these options.^(1,2)

See also: Planetary boundaries, Growth, Post-growth economy, Care, Craft of use, Localism, Post-growth fashion, Prosperity, Well-being.

Traditional knowledge, also known as local knowledge or indigenous knowledge, refers to collective ways of knowing that are deeply embedded in cultural traditions of a community or a region. Traditional knowledge draws on a depth of tacit skills, experiences and sensibilities that are passed down in oral traditions and practice-led guidance from generation to generation. In India for example, an ancient master-disciple tradition of guru shishya paramparaa that goes back to the Vedic period (c.1500 - c.1100 BCE) still continues today, transmitting knowledge through intellectual, emotional and spiritual bonding between the teacher and the pupil. The nuances of hand weaving and handcrafting in the heritage crafts (virāsat shilp) sector, including the techniques and aesthetics of traditional artisan objects, are learnt under the tutelage of a master (guru). A guru is an experienced practitioner, a family member or a person in the community, who passes on the traditional knowledge and skills of the craft to the apprentice. The novice, shishya, learns through observation and obedience of the instructional advice of the guru, rather than through formal pedagogy or curriculum. This tradition facilitates earning of livelihoods and ensures continuity of the rich traditional textile/craft legacy of India. Importantly, the value of traditional knowledge is also increasingly recognized in the context of the climate crisis. Research shows that traditional knowledge of indigenous communities offers a range of effective solutions to long-term sustainable land use and balanced ecosystem management. In moving beyond the homogenized narratives of market logic and the dominance of the Global North, continuity of traditional knowledge and recognition of the value of informal ways of learning is a critical enabler of cultural diversity, inclusion, and equality.^(1-5)

See also: Globalization, Decolonization, Localism, Indigenous rights, Cultural appropriation, Interdependence, Resilience.

Trust is a firm belief and confidence in the reliability, truth or ability of a person or an organization.⁽¹⁾ Yet, as a direct result of the long history of unsustainable social and environmental practices, the fashion sector is confronted with an increasing deficit in trust.⁽²⁾ Customers now better understand how the current business model compromises the well-being of people and the planet and this makes them more alert to greenwashing. They also increasingly question products and services that do not demonstrate integrity between claims and actions. While building trust is a long-term responsibility, relationship of trust can be lost in an instant. This is why small, value-driven companies are gaining advantage over large players who are still reluctant to act on the call for “radical transparency”.^(2,3) Strong relationships with suppliers, collaborators and customers, that can clearly evidence personal investment and care of whole teams in both the production and the consumption of their products and services, seem increasingly more effective for trust building than reliance on certifications, memberships, or pledges, which tend to be accompanied by legal disclaimers and small print caveats.^(3-4)

See also: Accountability, Care, Corporate social responsibility (CSR), Respect, Users, Public awareness.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) considers well-being with respect to both humans and ecosystems. Human well-being is defined as "a state of existence that fulfils various human needs, including material living conditions and quality of life, as well as the ability to pursue one's goals, to thrive, and feel satisfied with one's life".⁽¹⁾ Well-being of ecosystems depends on their ability "to maintain their diversity and quality".⁽¹⁾ In the context of climate emergency, sustainable development and systems thinking, it is critical that well-being of humans and natural ecosystems are maintained and cultivated in a mutual balance.

See also: Prosperity, Respect, Human rights, Global inequality, Growth, Post-growth economy, Sufficiency, Care, Interdependence, Resilience.

As one of the key stages of the fashion value chain, design refers to the conception and development of fashion products, services, and systems. Fashion design should consider the social, environmental, cultural, economic, aesthetic, and ergonomic implications of products. This also means taking into account all stages beyond the point of sale, including use, servicing and repairs, as well as onward journeys of products and what happens with them at the end of their useful lives. In this way, design can be a powerful tool and one of the key enablers of a more sustainable and prosperous future of fashion. However, it must also be accompanied by radical cuts in the volumes of production and material throughput.⁽¹⁾ There is a critical need for designers to understand multiple dimensions of sustainability in order to develop relevant, creative practice. Education in fashion, design and sustainability takes place in some leading universities, and courses in fashion design for sustainability are increasingly being sought by current and prospective fashion students and professional designers.⁽²⁾

See also: Design for disassembly, Zero waste design, Circular design, End of life, Stakeholders, Accountability, Care, Life cycle assessment (LCA).

Distribution refers to the shipping and logistics of raw fiber, materials, components, and unfinished items in the process of manufacturing and subsequent delivery of final products to the end users via retail outlets or e-commerce. The global character of the fashion supply chain means that raw materials may originate in one country but are likely to be spun into yarn in another, then they will be shipped to be woven into fabric elsewhere and later transported for finishing into yet another location, different again to where the final product will be manufactured. The rapid shift to offshore manufacture since the 1990s means that most of these processes typically take place away from the geographic location of the commissioning company and its target market, and so finished products are shipped yet again to where they are sold. All this is not without impact, the collective travel and distribution further increases the CO2 emissions and the overall ecological footprint of fashion products. Despite this, the impact of distribution is estimated to be relatively low in comparison to other stages of the fashion value chain.^(1-4)

See also: Packaging, Carbon footprint, Carbon offsetting, Carbon neutral, Externalized costs, Ecological footprint, Energy use, Reshoring.

End of life is a critical stage of the fashion value chain that distinguishes the current linear take-make-use-dispose model from a more holistic approach that considers what happens to products at the end of their first, second and third lives. End-of-life solutions should be integrated throughout the whole lifecycle of fashion products, from design and manufacturing, through to marketing, retail and services, to also help customers take part in extending clothing lifetimes through repair, alterations, take back schemes, re-sale, sharing, re-use and repurpose options. Material choices at the design stage play an important role in end-of-life solutions because low-quality and blend materials that currently dominate textile collections cause considerable technological challenges in terms of viable recycling options.^(1,2)

See also: Fashion design for sustainability, Design for disassembly, Circular economy, Circular design, Recyclability, Repairability, Closed-loop recycling, Downcycling, Upcycling, Craft of use, Sustainable fashion, Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), Anti-waste and Circular Economy Bill.

The term fashion has multiple meanings, depending on the context of its use. It originates from the French façon, the action or process of making⁽¹⁾ with workmanship as an element in its value. Fashion can therefore be seen as a mode of design that combines form and function, spanning from craftmanship to automation, from bespoke to standardized mass production. It involves the creating of a particular shape, style or pattern, relevant to a prevailing custom, or current usage, and so fashion can be a means to stand out or to fit in. Fashion is also defined by its relationship to other terms, such as clothing, style or dress. For example, while clothing is often understood through its material and utilitarian qualities - as cloth that covers our bodies - fashion is a far more abstract concept.^(2,3) It has important symbolic and communicative functions, fashion can be an “aesthetic medium for the expression of ideas, desires and beliefs circulating in society”.⁽⁴⁾ The French philosopher Roland Barthes famously saw the difference between style and fashion in the speed of change; style in his view changes much more slowly than fashion.⁽⁵⁾ Anthropologists who look for a more inclusive perspective in fashion expressions, beyond the Western fashion system, prefer the term dress, that also includes any items that may not easily fit into the Eurocentric concept of fashion.^(6-8) Fashion in its many forms is one of the most distinctive ways in which we identify and distinguish ourselves as humans. It reflects the social, cultural, political, economic, environmental and technological agendas in relation to place and time.

See also: Decolonization, Diversity, Inclusion, Sustainable fashion, Well-being, Fashion System.

The fashion industry is made up of a myriad of activities, practices and processes relating to the design, production, communication, selling and servicing of clothing, footwear, accessories, and jewelry, with the key components being textiles and leather. The textile industry produces yarns and fabrics (natural and synthetic materials) for the fashion industry (as well as for other uses), and the clothing industry (also called garment/apparel industry) produces garments. In addition to design and manufacturing, the fashion industry also encompasses communication, marketing, retail, services and increasingly, reflecting the need for circular models, end-of-life of products.^(1,2) The industry stretches from farming to chemical production, from artisan practices to AI and emerging technologies.

See also: Fashion, Fashion system, Supply chain, Value chain, Circular economy, Circular design.

Fashion system refers to the organizational structure of the constituent parts that together make up fashion’s relationships and activities, including its material and immaterial elements. The fashion system is largely based on the logic of the market, endorsed by social acceptability. Its leading principles, supported by political and legislative levers and realized through industry practices of hyperstimulation and overproduction, have alarming impacts in environmental and social terms. There are signs of saturation in the current system, and its implications on the well-being of individuals, communities and the environment are increasingly questioned. However, the pervasiveness of its consumerist approach, with increasing speed and volume and falling wages, means that fashion’s negative impacts are expected to rise further.^(1,2) By replacing the current growth logic by an “earth logic” ⁽³⁾ that puts human and environmental well-being first, the fashion system can be transformed to embrace more restorative structures and practices that re-balance social, environmental, cultural and economic value.(1-6)

See also: Paradigm change, Systems change, Overconsumption, Sufficiency, Economy, Prosperity.

Stakeholders are any individuals or communities, whether internal or external to an organization, that may affect or be affected by its actions. The consideration of stakeholders, as opposed to just shareholders, builds on the recognition of accountability and wider social and environmental responsibility of all commercial and non-commercial organizations. Stakeholders of the fashion industry may include suppliers, investors, retailers, customers, and governments, but also the communities in which fashion products are manufactured and their natural environment. In the wider sense of the global social and environmental impacts, the stakeholders of the fashion industry are people across the entire globe, the planet, and future generations.

See also: Care, Respect, Corporate social responsibility (CSR), Interdependence, Sustainable development, Users, Trust, Gen Y.

Supply chain refers to all the processes, organizations and individuals involved in turning raw materials into finished products and delivering them to customers. The fashion industry has a complex global supply chain that is notoriously difficult to trace. For example, raw materials originate in one country but are likely to be spun into yarn in another, then they will be shipped to be woven into fabric elsewhere and later transported for finishing into yet another location, again different to where the final product will be manufactured. The rapid shift to offshore manufacture since the 1990s means that most of these processes now typically take place away from the geographic location of the commissioning company and its target market, and so finished products are shipped yet again to where they are sold. This practice removes immediate control over manufacturing, dilutes responsibility for its social and environmental impacts, and leads to long and opaque supply chains that make complete transparency difficult to achieve. Yet, without transparency it is impossible to improve the damaging environmental and social practices in the production of fashion.

See also: Traceability, Transparency, Accountability, Value chain, Reshoring, Distribution, Environmental costs, Social costs, Fast fashion, Human rights, Modern slavery.

See Fashion industry.

Value chain refers to a whole series of activities that take place from the point of fashion product design through to its delivery to customer and its end of life. The term value chain is closely related to supply chain and the two are often used interchangeably.⁽¹⁾ Yet, there is a subtle difference between them. Whereas the term supply chain puts emphasis on manufacturing and distribution, value chain also includes processes such as design, marketing and services, that do not necessarily include the transformation of raw material into product, but still increase product value.⁽²⁾

See also: Fashion industry, Fashion, Fashion system, Consumption, Stakeholders.

The concept of circular economy aims to reduce waste and pollution by keeping materials, products and resources in use for as long as possible, through iterative cycles of recovery and regeneration.⁽²⁾ In contrast to the current linear system based on the take-make-use-dispose model, circular systems carefully consider what happens to materials and products at their end-of-life stage, when they are discarded or can no longer be re-used. While circular economy aims to decouple economic growth from the depletion of natural resources,⁽¹⁾ it is important to note that a true circular economy would need a radical paradigm change in our relationship to growth, as a growing system is inevitably linked to resource depletion.^(3,4) Circular economy can only bring its intended environmental benefits if it is accompanied by fundamental cuts in global production and consumption rates, radically slowing down the overall throughput of materials and resources across all industries.^(5-7)

See also: Efficiency, Closed-loop recycling, Circular design, Post-growth economy, Systems thinking, Systems change, Sufficiency, Recycling, Downcycling, Upcycling, Fashion industry, Fashion, Fashion system, Anti-Waste and Circular Economy Bill.

Circular design is an approach to product development that enables products and materials to be re-used, recycled and regenerated in the process of circular economy. Drawing on three circular economy principles, circular products are designed to: 1. minimize waste and pollution; 2. stay in use for as long as possible; and 3. enable regeneration of their materials into new resource streams,⁽¹⁾ thus ‘closing the loop’ in the fashion industry. Circular design strategies are methods and frameworks that offer designers and product developers guidance for meeting the principles of circular design. Examples include zero waste design, design for longevity, modular design, design for disassembly, design for remanufacture, upcycling, design for recyclability or design for biodegradability.⁽²⁾ However, it is critical to recognize that circular design can only bring its intended environmental benefits if it is accompanied by fundamental cuts in global production and consumption rates, radically slowing down the overall throughput of materials and resources across all industries.^(3-5)

See also: Efficiency, Closed-loop recycling, Downcycling, End of life, Extending clothing lifetimes, Centre for Circular Design, Life cycle assessment (LCA).

Closed-loop recycling is a circular approach to production, where any materials and components used in the manufacturing of a product are recovered through take back schemes and recycling collections to be used in making new products (closing the loop). Closed-loop recycling is an integral part of the circular economy and its key pre-condition is that materials recovered through the process of recycling must be of equal quality as the original input in order to enable infinite recycling loops. This is also one of the reasons why closed-loop recycling in the fashion industry is still emerging. There are numerous technological challenges in textile-to-textile recycling (as opposed to for example PET bottle-to-textile recycling) and it is estimated that currently only 1% of all virgin materials used for the production of clothing are recycled into new garments.⁽¹⁾ Some brands can currently use a percentage of their post-consumer waste materials to manufacture new clothing, and working on further improvements.⁽²⁾ However, no fashion company is closing the loop 100% as yet (NB: Valid at the time of writing, January 2020). It is also important to recognize that circular systems such as closed-loop recycling can only bring their intended environmental benefits if the overall throughput of materials and resources in the fashion industry and the global rates of production and consumption are radically cut.^(2-4)

See also: Circular design, Efficiency, Design for disassembly, Recyclability, Recycled materials, Non-virgin materials, Downcycling, Upcycling, Extending clothing lifetimes, Sufficiency, Post-growth economy, Anti-Waste and Circular Economy Bill.

Design for disassembly is a design strategy that ensures products can be easily deconstructed at their end of life to enable recycling, upcycling or re-use of separated elements. As recycling technologies for different materials vary, recycling is only possible if component materials of a product can be separated out for different recycling processes. For example, metal or plastic fastenings such as zippers and buttons need to be removed before recycling of clothing. Also, technology for recycling blend materials is still emerging which is why mono materials are preferable in design for disassembly. Products that have been designed for disassembly can contribute to a more resourceful use of materials in the circular economy by reducing the need for virgin materials and resources, and creating new products and material streams out of already existing resources.^(1,2) However, product disassembly is time- and labor-intensive and hinges on many interconnected factors such as material content and quality, access to sorting infrastructure and economic viability, among others.

See also: Recyclability, Circular design, Closed-loop recycling, Downcycling, Circular design, Non-virgin materials, Anti-Waste and Ciruclar Economy Bill.

Downcycling is a form of recycling in which discarded materials or products are converted into items of lower value than the original input. Examples include recycling of textiles into industrial wipers or insulation and filling materials for car, interior and pet industries. The need for downcycling largely results from the technological challenges and a lack of economically viable options for recycling low- quality and blend materials, that currently dominate textile collections.^(1,2)

See also: Recyclability, Upcycling, Closed-loop recycling, Circular economy, Circular design, End of life.

Ethical trade refers to the actions taken by companies and advocacy groups to ensure that workers’ rights, including working hours, health and safety, freedom of association and fair wages, are met across all business operations. For fashion brands, ethical trade requires identifying problems and ensuring decent working conditions for workers across their entire supply chains, from raw materials sourcing to their own operations.⁽¹⁾ The commitment to ethical trade is reflected in policy-making as well as regular monitoring, auditing, reporting and acting on the responsibility for continuous improvement.

See also: Transparency, Offshore manufacture, Modern slavery, Living wage, Poverty, Social costs, Human rights, Accountability, Corporate social responsibility (CSR), Stakeholders, Public awareness.

Extending clothing lifetimes means wearing clothes for longer and prolonging their useful life by clothing care, repairs, alterations, re-use and sharing. Extending the active lifetimes of clothes while jointly reducing the global clothing production and consumption, are now considered the most effective ways of cutting the environmental impact of the fashion industry.^(1-4) For example, the life-cycle assessment (LCA) of five garments during the recent MISTRA Future Fashion research project (2011-2019) showed that using clothes three times longer can reduce their carbon footprint by 65% and their water use by 66%.^(1,2)

See also: Craft of use, Localism, Post-growth fashion, Sustainable fashion, Sufficiency, Recycling, Circular economy, Re-commerce.

Fashion design for sustainability is a new field of study, based on a set of design principles and practices that balance ecological, economic, cultural and social prosperity. Fashion design skills, capabilities and mindsets are nurtured and developed inside and outside of universities around the world. The direct link between fashion design education and new movements in fashion practice is well recognized. In the context of the climate emergency and increasing social crises, there is now a new movement in fashion education, led by students, tutors, researchers and others, who seek to radically change the fashion curriculum. The Centre for Sustainable Fashion at University of the Arts London was established in 2008 to shape and contribute to this emerging field of study, connecting with a network of researchers and educators from around the world.^(1,2)

See also: Sustainable fashion, Design, Design for sustainability, Care, Paradigm change, Systems change, Systems thinking.

See Rental.

Life cycle assessment (LCA), also known as life cycle analysis, is a comparative methodology for assessing the environmental impacts linked to all stages of product life cycle, from raw materials, manufacturing, distribution, retail and use to disposal and end of life. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a growing area of study that has also led to numerous research and industry initiatives to identify which stages of the clothing lifecycle incur the most significant environmental impact. Multiple assessment tools have been developed, examples include the Footprint Tool by the European Clothing Action Plan or the Higg Index by the Sustainable Apparel Coalition (SAC). Yet, despite the accumulation of theoretical evidence and advances in modeling, there are multiple obstacles to measuring the real impact of clothing. These include issues with transparency and non-disclosure by companies, which make it difficult to obtain comparable and verifiable data (for example the impact of cotton also depends on where and how it is grown). Other difficulties are in variations across material and product categories as well as in changing consumption habits. The impact of the use stage in particular is notoriously difficult to predict as user behavior varies not only between families in a single geographic area but also between different members of the same family. Despite this, extending the active lifetimes of clothes while jointly reducing global production and consumption, are now considered the most effective ways of cutting the environmental impact of the industry.^(1-8)

See also: Design, Laundering, Circular economy, Circular design, Extending clothing lifetimes.

Live commerce refers to an emerging retail concept that combines live-streaming with e-commerce. Over the last few years, several brands have experimented with live commerce by enabling instant purchases during live streamed fashion shows. Yet, while still a relatively new and emerging concept for Western audiences, live commerce has already revolutionized Chinese markets. In China, live streaming is a powerful form of entertainment, and the growing popularity of real time cooking, gaming, beauty or fashion platforms gave rise to the so called ‘wang hong economy’. KOLs (key opinion leaders), also known as wang hongs, are internet celebrities equivalent to Western influencers. They build a strong on-line following on their self-branding and personality, to establish authority in their chosen area of interest. In Chinese live commerce, KOLs stream live shopping sessions that offer a more personalized on-line shopping experience, giving shoppers the opportunity to see multiple items tried on and reviewed by a ‘real person’. Audiences can ask real-time questions on any aspects of the product, such as material, fit, feel or specific construction details. KOLs then generate revenue through cuts from sold products and also through virtual gifts from followers that are equivalents to tips.

Outside China, the strongest live commerce platforms to date are those that allow Chinese customers to shop in brick and mortar shops abroad, especially in the US (NB: valid at the time of writing - June, 2020). However, the impacts of the Covid-19 pandemic on retail are amplifying interest in live commerce globally. In the context of fashion and sustainability, it is then worth noting that the widespread appeal of live commerce in China often relies on impulse buying and instant gratification rather than carefully considered purchases of items with potential for long-term, satisfying use. Not unlike tele-shopping for older generations, habitual parasocial interactions through live stream platforms can equally be symptoms of loneliness and social isolation experienced by the younger Gen Y and Gen Z.

In China, both loneliness and isolation are among the immediate consequences of the country’s rapid urbanization. The mass-migration to urban areas has separated families and leaves large proportions of the population feeling lost in anonymous cities while millions of others feel stranded and isolated in rural areas. In this situation, the country’s progressive network coverage offers on-line company and entertainment accessible to most, which in turn explains the popularity of live stream experiences. As the global Covid-19 crisis has amplified the need to recalibrate fashion towards more environmentally and socially sound practices, the case of live commerce success in China is a timely reminder that commercial success is always closely intertwined with the well-being of people and the planet.^(1-15)

See also: Externalized costs, Social costs, Globalization, Consumption, Overconsumption, Migrant workers, Interdependence.

Re-commerce, also known as re-sale, is an emerging area of the second-hand marketplace where businesses and individuals can buy and sell pre-owned fashion items through consignment, peer-to-peer and online platforms. While the second-hand market has traditionally existed in vintage and charity shops, auction houses, and informal fairs or markets, re-commerce generally refers to a more selective, ‘curated’ or high-end approach.⁽¹⁾ Re-commerce offers users the ability to sell on unwanted pieces, and so ensures that products are kept in use for longer by passing them on to new ownership. The recent expansion of re-commerce models has been driven by multiple innovations that enabled professionalization of online platforms and logistics, as well as a shift in public perception due to attractiveness of access to the luxury market at an affordable price.^(1-5) The assumed benefit of re-commerce is in decreasing industry reliance on virgin materials and the need for new goods. However, the correlation between re-commerce models and reduced consumption of new items still requires evidence.⁽⁵⁾

See also: Extending clothing lifetimes, Sharing, Circular economy, Re-use, Gen Y, Anti-Waste and Circular Economy Bill.

Recycling is a way of diverting waste from landfill and incineration by converting discarded materials or products into new items by regenerating materials for a new use. Yet, while recycling is widely used for some materials such as PET or glass, it is estimated that only 1% of all virgin materials used for production of clothing are recycled into new clothes.⁽¹⁾ The rest is mainly incinerated or ends up in landfill, and a small fraction is recovered through downcycling. On the one hand, better public awareness means that more clothing is collected, but on the other, the increasing volumes of clothing production also mean that the supply of collected clothes now largely exceeds the demand.⁽²⁾ In addition, solutions for recycling of low-quality and blend materials are still in development and are not yet available at an economically viable scale (NB: Valid at the time of writing, December 2019). While it is possible to recycle PET bottles into textiles, recycling textiles to textiles is still a major technological challenge. Another key consideration is that even the best recycling technologies rely on high energy use and chemicals, and so radical cuts in global production and consumption volumes and extending clothing lifetimes are the most effective ways of reducing the environmental impact of the fashion industry.⁽²⁾

See also: Recyclability, Upcycling, Design for disassembly, Non-virgin materials, Closed-loop recycling, Circular economy, Circular design, End of life, Extended producer responsibility, Hazardous chemicals, Anti-Waste and Circular Economy Bill.

Recyclability refers to the potential suitability of a material or a product for recycling. Recyclability generally requires that materials and products consist of a single fiber or fiber type, because technologies for recycling blend materials are still in development and are not yet available at an economically viable scale (NB: Valid at the time of writing, December 2019). Commonly recycled materials include polyester, elastane, polyamide nylon, wool, leather, down, and cellulose-based materials such as cotton, hemp, linen, viscose, lyocell and modal. Recyclability in fashion reduces the need for virgin materials and enables the creation of new products from resources that are already in circulation. When applied to design and product development, design for recyclability ensures that at the end of its useful life a product can enter a new material stream. To facilitate recyclability, all materials and inputs must be free from hazardous chemicals, ensuring worker and wearer safety, and must consist of mono materials or be designed for disassembly. However, even the best recycling technologies rely on high energy use and chemicals, and so extending clothing lifetimes accompanied by radical cuts in global production and consumption volumes are the most effective ways of reducing the ecological footprint of fashion.^(4),(1-6)

See also: Waste, Upcycling, Downcycling, Non-virgin materials, Closed-loop recycling, Circular economy, Circular design, End of life, Extended producer responsibility, Anti-Waste and Circular Economy Bill.

Rental is an emerging business model based on sharing fashion goods instead of their individual ownership. With the increased public awareness of the environmental and social impacts of fashion, co-ownership initiatives and sharing economy that have already disrupted other sectors are also gaining popularity in fashion. Rental can increase the use rates of under-used items and it potentially delays their premature discarding and depositing in landfills. In this way, rental alignes with with one of the main principles of circular economy - keeping products and materials in use for as long as possible. Fashion rental offers a broad scope of possibilities, including more traditional occasional wear like suiting or costumes, designer pieces or limited-edition garments and clothing used during a clearly defined life period, such as maternity wear or childrenswear. Fashion rental includes on-line and off-line peer-to-peer sharing initiatives, specialized fashion rental services by established companies and recently emerging rental options introduced by high street brands. While the rental economy could significantly contribute to extending clothing lifetimes, its effects on reducing overproduction and overconsumption of clothing are so far unconfirmed. Additional environmental impacts also need to be considered, as in comparison to single-purchase products, rental items require more cycles of packaging, laundering and distribution. Research has also shown significant cultural and geographical differences in user acceptance of new business models such rental.^(1-3)

See also: Extending clothing lifetimes, Re-use, Re-commerce, Sufficiency, Consumers, Users, Anti-Waste and Circular Economy Bill.

Repairability refers to the potential of fashion items to be easily repaired and maintained, ensuring they are kept in use for longer. This is enabled for example by including components that can be replaced, such as buttons, or by providing extra swatches of materials for visible or invisible mending. Alternatively, easy access to professional repair services that can help maintain a product’s function and aesthetic also facilitates repairability. When applied to design and product development, design for repairability gives careful consideration to future use and finds creative ways for design to ‘absorb’ future repairs without compromising the item's aesthetic appeal.⁽⁴⁾ Design for repairability and re-education in repair skills are now considered among priorities in extending clothing lifetimes and a transition to more sustainable ways of engaging with and enjoying fashion.^(1-8)

See also: Craft of use, Localism, Post-growth fashion, Sustainable fashion, Circular design, Circular economy, Clothing care.

See Re-commerce.

Sharing is an emerging service business model for the fashion sector that includes online and offline options such as rental or swapping of clothes and subscription models. Sharing can offer the experience of novelty and excitement equivalent to purchasing new items, while at the same time contributing to extending clothing lifetimes through re-use. Sharing models are becoming increasingly popular with the generations of Gen Y and Gen Z, whose awareness of the immediate risks associated with the climate crisis is reflected in their preference of value-based consumption.^(1-2)

See also: Public awareness, Consumption, Consumers, Users, Sufficiency, Re-commerce.

Upcycling is a form of recycling in which discarded materials or products are converted into items of higher value than the original input. Examples include the use of pre-consumer waste materials such as scraps of leather, polyester or neoprene from the outerwear industry to make bags and other accessories, or re-purposing good-quality older clothing into new items. Upcycling hinges on effective information flows and the availability of quality pre- and post-consumer waste materials. Thoughtful design, public awareness and acceptance of re-used materials are also necessary pre-conditions enabling the viability of upcycling practices.

See also: Recyclability, Downcycling, Closed-loop recycling, Circular economy, Circular design, End of life, Re-use.

Zero waste is an approach to fashion design that eliminates all fabric waste from a garment. Zero waste products require fewer resources than conventional styles and aim to address the average 15% fabric waste created during production. Zero waste fashion design adopts the width of a cloth as the space within which to design the pattern pieces of a garment, while simultaneously considering garment fit, aesthetics, and cost. Contemporary zero waste design has been pioneered by creative researchers and designers such as Holly McQuillan, Timo Rissanen and Zandra Rhodes.^(1,2)

See also: Waste, Sustainable fashion, Circular design, Circular economy.

Bamboo is a natural bast fiber obtained from the inner bark (also called skin or bast) of fast-growing bamboo plants. Bamboo is native to China, but it grows well in other locations and climates, with few additional requirements during cultivation. Currently, two materials are produced from bamboo - bamboo linen and bamboo viscose. Bamboo linen production can be largely mechanical, as bamboo stems can break up in water or dew, thus minimizing the environmental impact of the process. However, chemicals are often used to speed up the extraction (also called retting). Bamboo linen wrinkles easily and requires frequent and intense pressing in the use stage, with implications for both utility and domestic energy use. Bamboo viscose is produced either through the viscose/rayon process that relies on heavy use of chemicals or the lyocell process that uses non-toxic solvents and recycles most chemical inputs in a closed-loop manufacturing system. Although the fast growth of bamboo can be one solution to slowing down deforestation - a key concern linked to the production of viscose/rayon; bamboo plants can be quite invasive, and so careful land management is needed to protect the surrounding habitats.^(1-4)

See also: Land use, Ecosystem, Water pollution, Renewable resources, Natural materials, Synthetic materials, Biodegradable materials.

Biodegradable materials are materials that can be reduced to simpler substances or can completely break down to minerals through natural processes catalyzed by microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi.⁽¹⁾ It is important to note that a material’s potential for biodegradability does not guarantee that it will always biodegrade, as biodegradation is a natural process that depends on suitable environmental conditions such as temperature, nutrient sources, pH and oxygen levels.⁽²⁾ In addition, biodegradability also requires that all inputs, including dyes, washes or other chemicals used in the production are also biodegradable; this includes anything that may leave chemical traces or prevent a material from decomposing. There are three main types of biodegradable fibers: 1. natural fibers, including wool, cotton, silk, hemp and linen as well as cellulose-based fibers such as modal, viscose and lyocell; 2. synthetic fibers that are bio-based, including polylactic acid (PLA) plastics, cellulose acetate and aliphatic polyesters; 3. polyesters that are produced by microorganisms, such as polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), usually created through bacterial fermentation.⁽¹⁾ The terms ‘biodegradable’ and ‘compostable’ are often used interchangeably. However, while exact definitions vary, biodegradability generally refers to natural decomposition while compostability relies on managed processes of decomposition, such as industrial composting.⁽³⁾

See also: Natural materials, Synthetic materials, Sustainable materials, Blend materials, Mono materials, Recyclability, Non-virgin materials.

See Plastics.

Blend materials, also called composite materials, are materials that consist of more than one type of textile fiber. Due to their enhanced performance properties, which draw on qualities of a variety of fibers, their use in the fashion industry is widespread. Examples include denim with elastane content for increased flexibility and comfort, or cotton and polyester blends used to reduce shrinkage and crease resistance. However, the recycling of blend materials is technologically challenging as it requires the separation of all component polymers. Therefore, no recycling options for blends operate at scale to date (NB: Valid at the time of writing, December 2019) and most discarded blends are either downcycled, incinerated or they end up in landfill.⁽¹⁾

See also: Recyclability, Natural materials, Synthetic materials, Closed-loop recycling, Circular economy, Circular design, Design for disassembly, Biodegradable materials.

Cashmere is a soft fiber sourced from cashmere goats by regular combing during the molting season. The majority of the world’s cashmere comes from Asia, particularly China and Mongolia. The fiber yield per goat is extremely low (up to 200g per goat), which means that hair of four to five goats is needed for one sweater and up to thirty animals are combed to obtain enough material for an overcoat.⁽¹⁾ This increases the environmental impact of cashmere production as the popularity of the fine fiber means that large areas of land are used to rear enough goats to meet the demand. In addition, cashmere goats are more damaging to land quality than other species as they forage more aggressively and consume more roughage.⁽²⁾ The growing global demand resulted in overgrazing in the Central Asian grasslands, leading to desertification, land degradation and dust storms caused by soil erosion. Cashmere production is also known to compromise animal welfare and it offers precarious livelihoods to the goat herders, who live in poverty and are extremely vulnerable to the effects of climate change and local land degradation. As a result, more sustainable alternatives are now sought, including wool and recycled cashmere. The Sustainable Fibre Alliance focuses on development of a more sustainable cashmere supply chain through restoration of grasslands and support and education for herders.⁽³⁾

See also: Land use, Global inequality, Non-virgin materials.

Cotton is a soft fiber that grows in bolls, or protective cases, on cotton plants and it is one of the oldest fibers cultivated for textiles. Cotton farming accounts for 2.3% of the world's arable land use across approximately 75 mostly developing countries, with China and India being the global leaders.⁽¹⁾ Being a key cash crop, cotton provides income for millions of farmers, but it is also responsible for severe social and environmental impacts. The global average water use for 1kg of cotton (equivalent to 4 T-shirts) is 10,000 liters.^(2,3) Although cotton has certain tolerance to drought and heat, water supply increases yields and improves quality and fiber length. As a result, it is estimated that nearly 3/4 of cotton is irrigated.⁽¹⁾ This has damaging consequences on the water supply and local water balances in regions that already suffer from water scarcity, e.g. Egypt, Uzbekistan, Pakistan and Australia. In addition, cotton is highly vulnerable to pest infestation and the cultivation of conventional cotton (as opposed to genetically modified (GM) crops, organic cotton or Better Cotton Initiative (BCI) cotton) relies on more pesticides per unit than any other crop.⁽⁴⁾ Toxic chemicals used in cotton cultivation cause water pollution and have long-term impacts on soil fertility, pest resistance and biodiversity loss. They also pose serious health hazards for local communities and especially for workers handling them, including child laborers.^(1-4) However, the physical comfort and technical properties of cotton are hard to match and currently no comparable alternatives exist in the market.⁽⁵⁾ The best available options include organic cotton, BCI cotton and other certified, more responsibly grown cotton. Yet, these options still cover only a fraction of the cotton market.⁽⁵⁾

See also: Natural materials, Bonded labor, Farmer suicide, Child labor, Migrant workers, Modern slavery, Hazardous chemicals.

Denim is a mostly indigo-dyed hard-wearing cotton twill fabric. Its considerable environmental and social impacts are linked to cotton production, bleaching and dyeing technologies, as well as finishing processes such as distressing, sandblasting and stonewashing, which all pose serious health hazards to workers and reduce garment durability. Each stage of denim production relies heavily on the use of chemicals, puts high demands on water use, and in many regions its production also contributes to severe water pollution. Further environmental impact is linked to the use stage of denim through excessive and often unnecessary laundering.^(1-4) At the same time, if produced responsibly, denim has a strong potential for longevity, through both physical and emotional durability, thanks to its hard-wearing qualities and its ability to soften through wear and mold to the wearer’s body^(5-7)

See also: Hazardous chemicals, Global inequality, Extending clothing lifetimes, Recyclability, Blend materials, Non-virgin materials, Closed-loop recycling, Circular design, Circular economy.

Econyl® is recycled nylon made from waste such as fishing nets, fabric scraps, carpet flooring and industrial waste from landfills and oceans. The intensive purification process of all the input material results in yarn whose quality is equal to virgin material. The Italian company Aquafil, who developed it, asserts full production transparency of Econyl®, which means that every stage of the sourcing and manufacturing is extensively controlled and available for inspection. Econyl® is used for both interior and fashion industries and the technology used enables repeated recovery without any loss of yarn quality.^(1,2)

See also: Synthetic fibers, Synthetic materials, Recyclability, Recycling, Downcycling, Upcycling, Closed-loop recycling, Circular economy.

Faux fur is a material that imitates the look and feel of animal-derived fur. While on the one hand, faux fur addresses the concerns about animal welfare in the production of fur, on the other, it creates another set of issues linked to its ecological footprint. Most faux furs are made from synthetic fibers, usually acrylic or polyester, which means that their production relies heavily on non-renewable resources such as petroleum and carbon-based fossil fuels. The production process is linked with high energy use, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and microfiber pollution.^(1–4) The life cycle assessments (LCA) that compared the environmental impacts of faux fur and natural fur are inconclusive as the results vary in dependence on care, product lifespan and other variables linked particularly to provenance and use.^(5,6) The emerging alternatives to virgin petroleum-based faux fur include blends of bio-based plastics and recycled polyester.

See also: Animal welfare, Endangered species, Biodiversity, Synthetic materials, Blend materials, Sustainable materials, Recycled Materials.

See Fish skin.

The use of ocean food waste fish skin (fish leather) for luxury leather-based products draws on the cultural traditions of many Arctic cultures and their knowledge of its physical properties. Due to diagonal alignment of fibers, fish skin is much stronger than lamb or cow leather of equivalent thickness. In addition, by re-using waste from one industry (fishing/food) to manufacture products for another industry (fashion) the use of fish leather implements the principles of circular economy in the manufacturing of luxury fashion products.^(1,2)

See also: Closed-loop recycling.

See Linen.

Fur is an animal-derived material made from skins of species with thick growth of hair such as foxes, cats, dogs, sheep, seals, bears, mustelids (mink, ermine etc.), rodents (rabbit, beaver, chinchilla etc.) and other exotic species. It is obtained by skinning an animal for a pelt, where hair is left attached after processing. Some furs are produced from fetal animals, such as astrakhan. Fur production therefore raises important ethical questions and serious concerns regarding animal welfare. These include inhumane slaughter, trapping and farming methods, as well as mass slaughtering of endangered and exotic species. Fur can also have a higher environmental impact than leather, as unlike some leather, it is rarely a by-product of the meat industry.^(1-4)

See also: Endangered species, Extinction, Biodiversity, Respect, Faux fur, Vegan leather.

Hemp is a natural bast fiber obtained from the inner bark (also called skin or bast) of industrial hemp, one of the oldest agricultural crops and one of the first plants spun into textiles valued for their strength. Hemp is very fast and easy to grow, adaptable to most conditions, with little need for fertilizers or pesticides and irrigation. Unlike most other crops, hemp growing enriches and purifies rather than depletes the soil it grows in. Hemp has no specific requirements on location or soil quality and has a higher crop yield per acre in comparison to all other fibers. In addition, all parts of the plant can be used, making food, textiles or building materials. The processes of extracting hemp fiber from the plant are the same as for other bast fibers such as linen or bamboo linen, and include dew retting, retting in ponds, tanks or under running water, and also chemical retting. When the fiber is extracted from the plant, the production of hemp cloth is a mechanical process that involves spinning into yarns and weaving into fabric.^(1-5)

See also: Chemicals, Natural materials, Biodegradable materials, Renewable resources.

Leather is an animal-derived material made from the skin of species such as cows, goats, sheep, pigs, deer, or exotic animals. Leather is obtained by skinning an animal, cleaning the skin of hair and preserving it through tanning and dyeing processes. While some suppliers offer leather that is strictly a certified by-product of the meat industry (for cow, sheep, calf and pig) this is not the case for all the leather available in the market.⁽¹⁾ The leather industry is linked with severe environmental and social impacts. These include high greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, intensive water and land use, critical deforestation and biodiversity loss caused by clearing areas for rearing livestock, and also water pollution with chemical effluents from leather processing. Further concerns are related to animal welfare, especially inhumane slaughtering.^(1-4) Alternatives include vegetable tanned leather, fish skin and a growing range of vegan leather options.

See also: Chromium, Hazardous chemicals, Global warming, Climate change, Respect.

Linen is a natural bast fiber obtained from the inner bark (also called skin or bast) of flax and it is one of the oldest textiles. Flax is a fast-growing plant that needs little irrigation if grown in mild, moist climates. It also requires considerably fewer fertilizers and pesticides than cotton. As in the case of bamboo and hemp, the process of extracting the flax fiber (retting) is enabled by water, and the traditional dew retting where the flax stems are left out in the fields for a few weeks to rot is a process with low environmental impact. Other methods such as soaking in water tanks, ponds or placing stems under running water have also been used. However, the rotting stems cause water pollution and so can have damaging impacts on local waterways. Another method of flax fiber extraction is chemical retting, which is the fastest process but one that negatively affects the final quality and releases even more damaging effluents. Newer methods such as enzyme retting have therefore been developed to reduce the retting impacts. When the fiber is extracted from the plant, the production of linen is a mechanical process that involves spinning into yarns and weaving into fabric.^(1-5)

See also: Chemicals, Natural materials, Biodegradable materials, Renewable resources.

Lyocell is a new, regenerated cellulose fiber that has been available on the market since the late 1990s. The majority of lyocell, known under the trade name TENCEL™, now comes from the Austrian manufacturers, the Lenzing Group. Similar to viscose, lyocell is derived from natural cellulose through chemical processing, generating a solution that can be made into endless filament threads and spun into yarn. However, unlike the production of viscose, most chemicals in the lyocell process can be recovered and re-used in a closed-loop manufacturing system and the solvent used (amine oxide) is considered non-toxic. TENCEL™ uses only wood pulp obtained from wood grown and extracted under certified forestry programs, and the new REFIBRA™ technology also enables the cellulose for TENCEL™ lyocell to be obtained from pre-consumer waste cotton (such as offcuts from garment production). The TENCEL™ fibers are compostable and biodegradable under suitable conditions.^(1-4)

See also: Deforestation, Water pollution, Energy use, Hazardous chemicals, Synthetic materials, Circular economy.

Mono materials are materials that contain only one type of fiber. Examples include 100% cotton or 100% polyester. Mono materials are much easier to recycle than blend materials whose recycling requires separation of their component polymers and so poses significant technological challenges.

See also: Recyclability, Design for disassembly, Closed-loop recycling, Circular economy, Circular design, Biodegradable materials.

Natural fibers are fibers derived from natural resources such as plants or animal proteins.

See also: Natural materials.

Natural materials fall into two large categories: cellulose- or plant-based (e.g. cotton, hemp, linen) and protein- or animal-based (e.g. wool, silk, leather, down). While they often tend to be labeled as the "good" and preferable alternative to synthetic materials, social and environmental impacts of all materials vary in relation to where they come from and how they are produced. For example, cotton is a crop with high requirements of water use to increase crop yields and fiber length, which is highly problematic because it is largely grown in areas that already suffer from water scarcity. Conventionally grown cotton, (as opposed to genetically modified (GM) crops, organic cotton or Better Cotton Initiative (BCI) cotton), also relies on heavy use of insecticides and pesticides. Animal-based materials including wool, leather, silk or down need careful consideration in terms of animal welfare, land use and intensive treatments with chemicals. The traceability of the supply chain, the selection of the right material for the right application, manufacturing processes, distribution, laundering and maintenance practices during use, and also how fashion products are disposed of at their end of life must all come into the equation. Material sustainability is therefore complex and always context dependent.^(1-5)

See also: Synthetic materials, Sustainable materials, Biodegradable materials, Blend materials, Mono materials, Virgin materials, Hazardous chemicals.

Non-virgin materials are materials regenerated from discarded products through the process of recycling. Examples include recycled post-consumer materials such as recycled denim, or recycled polyester manufactured from ocean waste plastic. However, textile-to-textile recycling (as opposed to e.g. PET bottle-to-textile-recycling) includes numerous technological challenges and most textiles are still recycled manually by the process of shredding. This results in shorter fibers and lower-quality yarn. Non-virgin fibers are therefore mostly blended with virgin fibers to balance the quality of the final material. 100% non-virgin materials are still relatively rare.^(1-5) (NB: Valid at the time of writing, December 2019)

See also: Virgin materials, Recyclability, Blend materials, Mono materials, Nylon, Closed-loop recycling, Circular economy, Greenwashing.

Nylon (synthetic polyamide) was commercially introduced in the late 1930s/early 1940s as the first 100% synthetic fiber. It was initially used mainly in women’s hosiery. Currently, nylon is mainly known under this original brand name and is the second most-produced synthetic fiber after polyester.⁽⁵⁾ There are several types of nylon, the difference being their constituting polymers. The most commonly used are Nylon 6 and Nylon 6.6, each with slightly different applications and characteristics. Like the production of polyester and other synthetic materials, the manufacturing of nylon relies heavily on non-renewable resources such as petroleum and carbon-based fossil fuels. Nylon is linked with significant CO2 and other greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and the manufacturing process also puts high demands on energy use. On the other hand, nylon production requires less water and land use in comparison to cotton and many other natural materials. As a fully synthetic material, nylon cannot biodegrade and when deposited in landfills it takes hundreds of years to decompose. However, Nylon 6 can be recycled in a closed-loop chemical process that enables infinite repolymerization, resulting in yarn of equal quality to virgin material.^(1-5)

See also: Carbon footprint, Econyl®, Closed-loop recycling, Non-virgin materials, Sustainable materials.

Plastics are man-made materials with a polymeric (macromolecular) structure that lends them their moldable properties and plasticity. The majority of plastics in circulation are fossil-based organic polymers obtained from petrochemicals. Emerging alternatives broadly known as bioplastics (biopolymers derived from renewable sources such as for example cellulose, vegetable fats and oils, corn, pea or potato starch, sugars from sugar cane and sugar beets), still constitute only a very small fraction of the market. There are multiple categories of plastic, depending on the constituting polymeric structure. Some of the most commonly used plastics include polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), polyvinylchloride (PVC), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester (PES), polyamide (PA) and acrylic (PC).

The production of plastics has seen an exponential increase since the 1950s, to the extent that the volume of plastic in use has become almost synonymous with economic growth. While plastics have many beneficial properties, including light weight and durability, the same properties have caused severe environmental, social and health crisis linked to global plastic pollution of marine, freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems. Significant proportions of plastics, especially packaging, become waste within the same year and often within the same month that they were produced.^{(1, 2)}

While the toxicity of pure plastics is relatively low, most plastic materials include chemical additives such as stabilizers, colorants, antistatic treatments, flame retardants, plasticizers or reinforcements. Many of these contain toxic compounds that can leach into the environment and contaminate soil, air and water. They can also be responsible for direct human exposure through release from plastic food packaging. While plastic recycling has become a popular option in addressing the plastic pollution crisis, it is also important to note that most plastic materials are still either incinerated or end up in landfills and illegal dumps,⁽¹⁾ where they take several centuries to degrade. It is likely that they can never be fully assimilated into natural systems, causing persistent pollution as they weaken and break into microplastics and nanoplastics. In addition, inappropriate recycling and recovery processes, especially in countries with lack of sufficient infrastructure and regulations (such as China, major plastic producers and recyclers⁽²⁾), can contaminate recycled products and cause serious health hazards for workers and inhabitants of the surrounding areas.⁽³⁾ Recycling merely delays plastic disposal, and plastic waste can be avoided only by more long-term systemic solutions that will diminish the throwaway mindset and the market logic that enables unlimited manufacture of materials and products that pose serious risks to human health and the environment.^(1-9)

See also: Plastic restriction, Waste classification, Microfiber pollution, Externalized costs, Carbon, Fossil fuels, Synthetic materials, Globalization, Global inequality, Circular economy, Closed-loop recycling, Extended producer responsibility, Anti-Waste and Circular Economy Bill, Ellen MacArthur Foundation

See Nylon.

Polyester is the world's most common synthetic fiber, which, along with cotton, accounts for the majority of the worldwide fiber market.^(1,4) Its production relies heavily on non-renewable resources such as petroleum and carbon-based fossil fuels, and it is linked with high CO2 and other greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The production process is also highly energy intensive; meaning that polyester requires considerably more energy use than cotton. On the other hand, it generally takes only a fraction of the water use required by cotton. Like other synthetic fibers, polyester is increasingly associated with microfiber pollution, specifically microplastics, that endanger marine wildlife and pose serious risks to human and environmental health.^(1-5) Alternatives now include recycled polyester or bio-based polyester; however, both currently cover only a fraction of the polyester market. In addition, like conventional polyester, polyester alternatives still contribute to microfiber pollution.

See also: Carbon footprint, Synthetic materials, Natural materials, Sustainable materials, Virgin materials, Non-virgin materials, Recycled materials.

See Viscose.

See Non-virgin materials.

Silk is a natural fiber derived from the cocoons of silkworms, which wrap themselves in a protein that forms a continuous thread up to 1 mile in length. Most commercially produced silk is obtained from the silkworms of the domesticated variety Bombyx Mori, which feed on the leaves of mulberry trees. To prevent the silkworms from breaking out of their cocoons naturally and so damaging the continuous silk fiber, the full length of the filament is preserved by killing the silkworm by steaming or piercing. Silk farming (sericulture) is highly labor-intensive and it requires large areas planted with mulberry trees because the yield per tree is very low (in the range of grams). The environmental impact of silk production varies according to farming practices: including the fertilizers and pesticides used for growing the trees (silkworms are very sensitive to agro-chemicals); the energy use in climate control for the chrysalises; the chemicals used to degum the silk filament; the water use for farming and fiber production; and the waste disposal methods. An alternative to commercially cultivated silk is silk obtained from wild silkworms who feed either on oak leaves or mulberry leaves and who have been left to emerge from their cocoons naturally, thus breaking the filament. However, the finest quality silk cannot be obtained from wild silkworms as the filament is much coarser than cultivated silk and is also of shorter length. One example of wild silk that is grown commercially is Tussah silk, produced by Tussah silkworms who break from their cocoons leaving a neat hole and longer filaments. Organic silk, produced without the use of fertilizers and pesticides for mulberry tree cultivation, is also available in small quantities. Silk is potentially compostable and biodegradable under suitable conditions, however, as with any other material, this depends on many other factors, such as processing chemicals and dyes used.^(1-4)

See also: Natural materials, Viscose, Water pollution.

The term sustainable materials, in a broad sense, refers to materials that can be sourced without depletion of non-renewable resources and that can be produced, used and disposed of in required quantities without causing harm to both people and the environment. While natural materials have often been labeled as the “good” and more sustainable alternative to synthetic materials, it is important to recognize that social and environmental impacts of all materials vary, depending on where they come from and how they are produced, used and discarded. Recent innovations have led to the development of a range of new recycled, recyclable, bio-based, biodegradable, paper-based or compostable materials, which tend to be promoted as the preferable, sustainable options. However, there is still a significant lack of comparable data on their technical properties as well as on their environmental impacts, to support such claims.⁽²⁾ To assess the environmental potential of any material, it is essential to consider the full lifecycle impact of the material choice. The selection of the right material for the right application, the traceability of the supply chain to enable monitoring of raw fiber sourcing and manufacturing processes, including the use of chemicals, product distribution, laundering and clothing care practices, and also how fashion products are disposed of at their end of life, all must come into the equation.^(1,2) Material sustainability is therefore complex and always context dependent, and both conventional and new materials have the potential to reduce the environmental and social impacts of material choices under the right conditions.⁽¹⁾ Yet, no material can be the “sustainable solution” for the industry if the current trends in volume and scale of production and overconsumption of fashion remain unchanged.^(1-6)

See also: Biodegradable materials, Blend materials, Mono materials, Virgin materials, Non-virgin materials, Hazardous chemicals, Carbon footprint, Externalized costs, Lifecycle assessment (LCA), Efficiency.

Synthetic fibers are human-made fibers manufactured either from natural or synthetic polymers.

See also: Synthetic materials.

Synthetic materials are manufactured from either natural polymers (e.g. viscose, lyocell, acetate) or synthetic polymers (e.g. polyester, nylon, acrylic). The manufacturing processes rely on heavy use of chemicals, high energy use and depletion of non-renewable resources. Burning of fossil fuels to power chemical plants also generates high volumes of CO2 and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Yet, just as in the case of natural materials, the impacts of each synthetic material vary in relation to where and how it is manufactured. For example, the production of rayon (viscose, modal and lyocell) uses wood pulp as a raw material and so contributes to alarming rates of deforestation, unless the wood is grown and extracted under a responsible forestry program such as Canopy. Synthetic materials are also increasingly associated with microfiber pollution and the release of microplastics, which endanger marine wildlife and human health.^(1-6)

See also: Carbon footprint, Hazardous chemicals, Environmental costs, Water pollution, Blend materials, Recycled materials.

See Lyocell.

Vegan leather refers to a range of alternatives to animal-derived leather that do not contain any products of animal origin. Vegan leathers fall into two main categories: 1. Widely available 100% synthetic oil-based imitation (faux) leathers, such as thermoplastic polyurethane (PU), polyurethane laminate (PUL) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC); 2. emerging plant-based alternatives including cork leather, banana or pineapple leaf leather, mushroom leather, coconut leather or apple leather. While imitation (faux) leathers can in many ways match the properties of animal-derived leather, like all synthetic materials derived from petroleum, they are linked with significant environmental impact. Many of the plant-based alternatives are produced from agricultural waste materials, drawing on circular economy models, but there is still a significant lack of comparable life cycle assessment (LCA) data on their technical properties as well as on their environmental impacts. Laboratory-grown biofabricated leather is among the latest cutting-edge developments, however, like many of the plant-based alternatives, it is not yet commercially available (NB: Valid at the time of writing, March 2020).

See also: Faux fur, Fish skin, Sustainable materials.

Virgin materials are materials that have not been previously used in manufacturing of products. Examples include virgin wool, virgin cotton, or virgin polyester, as opposed to their recycled alternatives. The use of virgin materials puts high demands on raw materials and non-renewable resources such as crude oil for the manufacture of polyester, or coal to generate energy for manufacturing plants.^(1-5)

See also: Non-virgin materials, Recyclability, Blend materials, Mono materials, Closed-loop recycling, Circular economy.

Viscose is the first man-made fiber, patented in the mid-1880s and known as ‘art silk’ in the early 20th Century. As viscose is made through the rayon process, it is also referred to as viscose rayon or just rayon. Viscose is derived from natural cellulose that typically comes from wood pulp of trees such as spruce, pine or eucalyptus, but waste cotton linters (short fibers from cotton plants) have also been used in making viscose. The cellulose is then chemically processed, using chemical solvents to obtain a solution that can be made into endless filament threads and spun into yarn. The viscose making process puts high demands on water use and it relies on numerous chemicals, such as sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), sodium sulphide, bleach or carbon disulphide, causing emissions that significantly contribute to air pollution. Potential contamination of local waterways by chemical effluents from the process is another key concern. Importantly, viscose production has also been linked with increasing the rates of deforestation. One of the ways of reducing the environmental impact of viscose production is therefore making sure that the wood used is grown and extracted under a certified responsible forestry program, e.g. Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), or through the Canopy initiative for viscose. Wood pulp for making viscose can also be obtained from fast-growing, lower-impact bamboo plants. Further improvements have been made in the process innovation, and since the late 1990s a new, regenerated cellulose fiber lyocell has been available on the market. The lyocell process (Tencel™) uses non-toxic solvents and enables recovery and re-use of most of the chemicals in a closed-loop manufacturing system.^(1,2)

See also: Water pollution, Energy use, Health hazards, Hazardous chemicals, Synthetic materials.

Wool is a protein hair fiber that is sourced from animals including sheep (e.g. merino wool), goats (cashmere, mohair) or rabbits (angora). In the fashion industry, the term wool is generally used to refer to wool sourced from sheep. Similar to cotton, the production of wool also relies on pesticides and other chemicals, although in significantly lower volumes. Pesticides are used mainly to protect sheep from infections caused by parasites; but their unsafe handling can pose serious health hazards to farmers and cause water pollution through run-offs from farms. Cleaning of raw wool requires wet scouring at high temperatures, often resulting in considerable fiber loss. The process also puts high demands on water use, energy use and causes further water pollution by releasing effluents into local water streams. More chemicals are later applied to wool in dyeing and finishing processes such as "super-wash", that prevents wool from shrinking (felting). Animal welfare is another concern in wool production. Animal injuries during shearing for the mohair and wool trade are not uncommon as laborers tend to be paid by volume, rather than by the hour, and quick work results in cuts and careless handling of sheep. The controversial practice of mulesing, a painful removal of flesh around the buttocks to protect (especially merino-producing) sheep against the parasite flystrike, is still a widespread practice in Australia and is often performed without the use of anesthetics.^(1-4) Yet, wool has numerous natural properties such as high strength, warmth, water and odor resistance, and if responsible practices are used in its sourcing, production and care, woolen garments have a strong potential for longevity through both physical and emotional durability.^(5-7)

See also: Hazardous chemicals, Natural materials, Recyclability, Recycling.

Bleaching is a process used to remove color from a textile or yarn, for the purposes of whitening it before a new color is fixed and to improve fiber absorption properties.⁽¹⁾ Common bleaching agents include sodium hypochlorite and hydrogen peroxide⁽²⁾ which can be toxic to aquatic life and cause severe skin, respiratory and eye irritation or burns.^(3-4)

See also: Chemicals, Hazardous chemicals, Health hazards, Water pollution, Public awareness.

The term ‘chemicals’ here refers to artificially made substances that are produced by or used in reactions that change atoms or molecules. While chemicals vary in their impact, production of fashion products relies heavily on the use of chemicals that cause considerable environmental damage, including decreased soil fertility and water pollution, which are also responsible for serious health hazards. Chemical pesticides and fertilizers are used in production of natural materials such as cotton for protection from insects, molds and weeds, and to increase yields. Chemicals are also needed to process fibers into yarns and yarns into fabric. Dyes, surface treatments, performance enhancing coatings and treatments, application of water and stain repellents and flame retardants are all chemical-intensive stages of textile production. Considerable health risks are involved for those handling these chemicals, often in conditions without sufficient health and safety measures. Despite gradual improvements, use of hazardous chemicals is still a widespread practice among world-leading brands.⁽¹⁾ In addition, substances used at different stages of production often remain in textiles and their gradual release in the use stage poses further dangers to human and environmental health.^(1-5)

See also: Hazardous chemicals, Manufacturing Restricted Substance List (MRSL), Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals (ZDHC), Synthetic materials, Water scarcity, Ecological footprint, Human rights, Bleaching, Chromium, Distressing, Dyeing, Finishing, Public awareness.

Chromium VI, also known as Cr6 or hexavalent chromium, is a heavy metal that is used for pigmentation during the leather tanning process, and can also be found in plastics and dyes.⁽¹⁾ The chemical is carcinogenic, causes irritations to skin and respiratory systems, and may have negative effects on reproductive systems.⁽²⁾

See also: Chemicals, Hazardous chemicals, Health hazards, Water pollution, Public awareness.

Distressing refers to processes that create a worn look, such as rips, holes, laddering, fading, and fraying. Distressing often negatively affects the durability of the garment, because the aged effect is achieved by wearing the fabric away. Techniques used for worn effects include sandpapering, shredding, bleaching or acid washing, burning or heat distressing, enzyme washing, sandblasting, and stonewashing. Laser etching and printing are recent developments in distressing techniques that create similar effects with lower water and energy use, less waste and effluent discharge, and reduced risks to worker safety.^(1-2)

See also: Chemicals, Hazardous chemicals, Health hazards, Water pollution, Public awareness.

Dyeing is the process used to fix color to a textile or plastic. While the color is contained in the dye or pigment, other chemicals are used to allow the material to absorb the dyes and bind them to the yarn. These include polymeric resin, binders, plasticizers, and surfactants.⁽¹⁾ Dyeing can be used to color yarns, fabrics, garments or to create prints. The dyes themselves can contain heavy metals and hazardous chemicals, which can break down into carcinogenic compounds and cause allergic reactions to workers and wearers.⁽²⁾ With rising public awareness of environmental and health concerns, natural dyes that offer an alternative to harmful chemicals are increasing in both availability and popularity.⁽³⁾

See also: Health hazards, Water pollution.

Finishing refers to processes that add desirable performance and handling properties to a fabric. Finishes can include flame retardants, water and stain repellents, anti-bacterial or anti-microbial treatments, anti-pilling or anti-static finishes, coatings and laminates.⁽¹⁾ Many of the chemicals used in these processes are known to have damaging environmental and health effects, including reproductive and hormonal disruption, bioaccumulation, and resistance to antibiotics.⁽²⁾

See also: Hazardous chemicals, Health hazards, Water pollution, Public awareness.

Hazardous chemicals are chemicals that are known to pose serious hazards to human and environmental health. These may include, but are not limited to: substances that are carcinogenic; mutagenic; toxic for reproduction; those that cause allergic skin and respiratory reactions; endocrine disrupting chemicals; as well as substances that are persistent, bio accumulative or toxic when released into the aquatic systems and the environment.⁽¹⁾ All stages of textile production rely heavily on chemical use. The most common hazardous chemicals used in textile manufacturing, during the pre-treatment, dyeing, printing and finishing stages, include solvents, surfactants, water and soil repellents, biocides and pesticides, dyes/pigments, flame retardants, plasticizers and pigments.^(1,2) For example, a policy recommendation report by the Swedish Chemicals Agency compiled a non-exhaustive list of 1900 chemicals used in textile production, of which 165 were identified as hazardous under EU legislation⁽³⁾.^(1-5)

See also: Health hazards, Water pollution, Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals, Bleaching, Chromium, Distressing, Heavy metals, Stonewashing.

Heavy metals are naturally occurring metals that are at least five times as dense as water, examples include cadmium, chromium (VI), lead, mercury and nickel. While many companies restrict the use of heavy metals, they are still widely used across the fashion industry and can be found in dyes, pigments, paint, plastic, pesticides, tanning chemicals, textile finishes, fixing agents and jewelry. Heavy metals are toxic and damaging to human and environmental health. Being known carcinogens, they can also affect the kidneys, the central nervous, immune, respiratory, and reproductive systems, and cause genetic defects and skin irritations. Many are fatal if inhaled or ingested. The occurrence of heavy metals in fashion products can cause harm to wearers and textile workers, and it also prevents safe recycling. In addition, heavy metals can leak into the environment through wastewater discharges and landfills, with further consequences to the environment and human health. They can bioaccumulate (build up in the bodies of animals and humans), destroy aquatic life and contaminate air, water and soil.^(1-3)

See also: Hazardous chemicals, Health hazards, Water pollution, Public awareness.

A Restricted Substance List (RSL) is a list of banned or monitored chemicals that regulates acceptable chemical levels in finished products. The Manufacturing Restricted Substance List (MRSL) extends this regulation to all manufacturing processes, specifying restrictions for chemical use throughout the whole production process and life cycle of products, with the aim to reduce environmental damage and protect worker and user health. An RSL/MRSL usually details required testing methods, risk levels for different materials, and toxicity effects. Some may also include acceptable non-hazardous alternatives. The Ellen MacArthur Foundation has highlighted the need for a unified RSL/MRSL (such as the ZDHC MRSL or the AFIRM Group RSL) to help eliminate hazardous substances across the industry by simplifying guidelines and requirements for manufacturers.^(1-3)

See also: Hazardous chemicals, Health hazards, Water pollution, Public awareness.

New dyes refer to innovations in textile dyeing technologies that aim to reduce the use of resources, toxic substances as well as the pollution and health hazards caused by current industrial dyes and processes. Examples include an advanced dyeing technology for cotton developed by the US company ColorZen® or EarthColors® by the Swiss company Archroma. The ColorZen® technology alters the structure of the cotton fiber on molecular level to increase the efficiency of the dyeing process. ColorZen® treatment prepares cotton fibers to accept dyes without the need for heavy chemicals, and has proven to significantly reduce water and energy use. EarthColors® are a commercially viable method of creating new dyestuff from natural non-edible by-products of the agricultural or herbal industries. EarthColor® dyes can be used for cellulose-based fibers such as cotton, lyocell, modal and viscose, and they are available in a range of shades. Achroma’s production cycle is traceable and transparent from the raw material to the final product in a closed-loop system, where it makes use of 100% of the raw material it acquires.^(1-4)

See also: Hazardous chemicals, Chromium, Heavy metals, Water pollution.

See Manufacturing Restricted Substance List (MRSL).

Sandblasting is a technique that gives denim a faded or worn aesthetic, removing pigmentation from the fabric by 'blasting' a stream of abrasive material (sand) against the garment. The process is associated with extreme health hazards for workers, most notably silicosis – a potentially fatal disease caused by inhaling crystalline silica dust particles found in natural sand.⁽¹⁾ With EU bans in place since 1966, Turkey banned sandblasting in 2009 after it was linked to the death of 50 workers. The practice has now shifted to yet unregulated regions in North Africa and South East Asia.⁽²⁾

See also: Chemicals, Hazardous chemicals, Water pollution, Public awareness.

Stonewashing is a technique that creates a worn-look effect by washing garments with detergents and natural pumice or a synthetic stone. The process requires higher energy and water use than conventional textile laundering and it also decreases the lifespan of the washing machines used. A newer alternative, bio-stoning, uses enzymes (usually cellulase, a natural protein) to achieve a similar esthetic with lower energy and water consumption. However, these enzymes can also cause allergic reactions for workers.^(1,2)

See also: Chemicals, Hazardous chemicals, Health hazards, Water pollution, Public awareness.

Clothing care includes all practices linked to its use after a piece of clothing is purchased and brought home. It starts with deciding on the ways of wearing and occasions for which an item is used, with considerations such as practicality and appropriateness for purpose. Clothing care then includes domestic washing, drying, and ironing routines as well as the use of dry cleaning services. Long-term use of clothing also requires considerations such as repairs, alterations, or protection from moths. As extending the active life of clothing is currently considered the most effective way of reducing the environmental impact of the industry, clothing care can be critical in enabling a more sustainable fashion future. For example, the frequency of washing, temperature and detergents used as well as the ways in which clothes are dried can significantly influence their usable lifetime. Washing infrequently, at low temperatures, with minimal detergent use, as well as line drying instead of tumble drying can help save energy, water, prevent premature deterioration of fabrics and reduce the risk of shrinkage. Re-education in repair skills and improved access to professional repair and alteration services are also key for nurturing the mindsets of care and responsibility for the clothes we buy and use. Contrary to the current logic of disposability in fashion, ample empirical evidence confirms that people often draw deep satisfaction and pleasure from resourceful ways of using and looking after old and familiar clothes that unsettle the logic of constant change and newness in fashion.^(1-8)

See also: Care, Craft of use, Localism, Post-growth fashion, Sufficiency, Well-being, Extending clothing lifetimes, Repairability, Consumers, Users.

The term consumers refers to people who use products and services in exchange for a financial transaction that generates profit for those who invested in the production and provision of these products or services.^(1-3) The consumer relationship to material things is often characterized by arbitrary purchases for fashion or social status reasons rather than out of necessity or real need. The consumer culture is built on a disconnect between producers and users, between making and use. This weakens links and relationships and creates an uncertainty about provenance, which is often reflected in a lack of care for purchased items and also their careless disposal. The current climate emergency makes it imperative that we change our relationship with fashion and other products from consumption, that implies waste and passive depletion of resources,⁽¹⁾ to "usership", which instead draws satisfaction from experiences of long-term use that require time, attention and tending of the things we choose to buy and use.⁽⁸⁾ We need to shift our perception of ourselves and each other from being solely identified as consumers to recognizing that we are all users and contributors to society, culture, environment and economy through our own skills, creativity, care and respect for people and the environment worldwide.^(1-8)

See also: Overconsumption, Paradigm change, Systems thinking, Systems change, Post-growth economy, Sustainable fashion, Post-growth fashion, Prosperity, Sufficiency, Well-being.

See Public awareness, Consumers, Users.

Consumption refers to the use of products and services in exchange for a financial transaction that generates profit for those who invested in their production and provision.^(1-3) The improved efficiency of fashion production along with rising disposable income in the Global North, and also later in emerging economies such as India and China, have contributed to the increase in consumption of fashion products throughout the 20th Century. The sudden availability of inexpensive fast fashion over the last 20-30 years has created a mindset that makes it acceptable to "regularly consume and discard clothing".⁽⁴⁾ The current climate emergency makes it imperative that we rethink this business model and change our relationship with fashion from “consumption”, that implies waste and passive depletion of resources,⁽¹⁾ to "usership", which instead draws satisfaction from experiences of long-term use that require time, attention and care for the things we choose to buy and use.⁽⁵⁾ We need to shift our perception of ourselves and each other from being exclusively identified as consumers to recognizing that we are all users and contributors to society, culture, environment and economy through our own skills, creativity, care and respect for people and the environment worldwide.

See also: Overconsumption, Paradigm change, Systems thinking, Systems change, Post-growth economy, Sustainable fashion, Post-growth fashion, Prosperity, Sufficiency, Well-being.

Gen Y, also known as millennials, are the generation born between the early 1980s and the mid-to late 1990s. Along with the following cohort of Gen Z, Gen Y are recognized as the generation that is immediately aware of the risks associated with the climate crisis, as they face its consequences more directly than the generation of their parents. This is also linked to their higher awareness of the global environmental and social issues, which is increasingly reflected in Gen Y’s changing shopping habits. Gen Y tend towards value-based consumption, that includes searching for background information, and they often prefer sharing as an alternative to ownership.⁽¹⁾ Gen Y and Gen Z are also reported to be more likely than any other generation to actively avoid buying products that do not match their environmental and social values, which has significant implications for the future of the fashion industry.^(1-2)

See also: Climate emergency, Public awareness, Trust, Consumers, Users, Sufficiency, RE-use, Re-commerce, Rental, Extending clothing lifetimes.

Laundering refers to the washing, drying, and ironing of clothes to remove soiling and odour. Yet, clothing is routinely laundered for many other reasons such as to tidy domestic clutter by moving barely worn clothes into a washing basket.⁽¹⁾ As both frequency and volume of laundered garments are increasing, the total energy use linked to laundry in the UK is estimated to have doubled since the 1970s.⁽²⁾ Frequent laundering negatively affects the longevity of garments and it further increases the total water use and carbon footprint of clothing over its lifecycle.^(3,4) More recently, domestic laundering has also been identified as one of the key sources of microfiber pollution.⁽⁵⁾

See also: Microplastics, Extending clothing lifetimes, Life cycle assessment (LCA), Public awareness.

Public awareness refers to people’s knowledge of issues and concerns linked to an important topic, to enable them to make their own, well-informed decisions based on facts and context rather than assumptions. Public awareness of the social and environmental impacts of the fashion industry is critical for a fundamental change in the ways fashion products are produced, communicated, used, and disposed of in the future. While people are increasingly concerned about the current fashion business model, such concerns are still rarely reflected in their routine shopping habits and consumption patterns. This “attitude behavior gap”⁽¹⁾ is partly caused by an uncertainty about alternatives to the status quo, the visibility of more sustainable options and a lack of knowledge about parameters of social and environmental sustainability. Fashion journalists and leading fashion media therefore have a critical role to play in creating the cultures of sustainability. Evidence from recent research confirms that the impact of the media, as well as awareness-raising campaigns such as Who Made My Clothes, has extraordinary potential to change mindsets and enable a future of fashion that maximizes well-being, deeper dimensions of prosperity, and respect for both people and the planet.^(2),(1-4)

See also: Paradigm change, Systems change, Overconsumption, Care, Sufficiency, Post-growth economy, Sustainable fashion.

Repair is a practice of clothing care where a worn, torn or otherwise damaged piece is restored to be used and enjoyed again. This may include techniques such as darning, patching, reinforcing seams and panels with new material, or replacing missing or faulty components such as buttons or zips. In India, for example, a rafoogar is a person who is adept at the techniques of rafoogari (art of rafoo) - mending a damaged fabric with darning stitches. To ensure continuity of the rafoogar community, the young are initiated into the intricacies and skills of darning through a prolonged period of training. Some specialize in the mending of clothing and shawls of silk, wool or cotton. The finesse of rafoogari is determined by the ability to make the damage (tears, burns etc.) invisible by merging with the fabric base and making it whole. Indian dry cleaners often associate with rafoogars for assessing and repairing damaged textile products. Museums and institutions that restore and conserve historical textiles and garment artifacts also associate with skilled rafoogars for the same purpose. Invisible repair practices such as rafoo, as well as visible repair techniques such as Japanese sashiko, that embraces repair as an integral part of clothing lifetime, encourage long-term relationships with the clothes we buy and use. While repair and alteration of clothing used to be among common skills, with the increasing availability of mass-produced cheap fashion, they are no longer economically viable. It can often be cheaper to buy a new piece than to repair an old one. However, keeping clothes in use for longer, while at the same time reducing our clothing consumption, is considered the most effective way of reducing the environmental impact of the fashion industry. Re-education in repair skills and improved access to professional repair and alteration services are therefore among the current priorities in encouraging more sustainable ways of engaging with and enjoying fashion.^(1-6)

See also: Repairability, Craft of use, Extending clothing lifetimes, Consumers, Users, Post-growth fashion, Sustainable fashion.

Re-use is a way of extending clothing lifetimes by keeping them in use for as long as possible. High turnover of fashion items is now a widespread practice and it is estimated that within the last two decades the number of times a garment gets worn before disposal has decreased by a worldwide average of 36%.⁽¹⁾ Large quantities of valuable clothes are regularly discarded and because only a small fraction can be recycled, most are destined for incineration or end up in landfills.^(2-4) Re-use, on the other hand, encourages long-lasting relationships with clothes through sustained active use and careful clothing care, including repairs and alterations that can give unused items a new lease of life. Contrary to the current logic of disposability in fashion, ample empirical evidence confirms that people can draw deep satisfaction and pleasure from such resourceful ways of re-using and looking after old and familiar clothes.^(5-7) Where use by the original owner is no longer possible, clothes can be given second and third lives through gifting or swapping with family, friends and local communities, upcycling, sharing, rental, re-commerce or charity donations. Many of these practices have been gaining momentum in a range of emerging business models.^(8,9)

See also: Public awareness, Downcycling, Repairability, Sufficiency, Users, Overconsumption, Waste, Craft of use, Post-growth fashion, End of life, Circular economy, Anti-waste and Circular Economy Bill.

The concept of sufficiency is integral to more sustainable fashion futures as it recognizes the irreconcilability between the finite limits of the planet and the infinitely increasing rates of production and consumption of fashion. Sufficiency thinking acknowledges that material objects, including fashion products, are integral to human culture and up to a certain point can increase life satisfaction and well-being. At the same time, overconsumption of material things is detrimental not only to humans but crucially also to the environment. The concept of sufficiency is also considered in the context of circular economy, where it refers to business strategies that actively seek solutions for managing demand and reducing the volumes of production and consumption. These may include alternative business models that promote extending clothing lifetimes through re-use, sharing, rental or re-sale and also through raising public awareness of all such options.^(1,2)

See also: Growth, Paradigm change, Systems change, Post-growth economy, Prosperity, Craft of use, Gen Y.

The term users refers to people who make use of products and services. In the capitalist economy, access to use often includes a financial transaction that generates profit for those who invested in the production and provision of these products or services.^(1-3) However, the term users is distinguished from the widely used term consumers, by putting emphasis on the experience of sustained active use. This allows a maturing relationship that includes constant testing and feedback loops, enabling re-appropriation, hacking or even complete re-design of products and services to better suit individual needs, wishes and preferences. The current climate emergency makes it imperative that we rethink the current fashion business model and change our relationship with fashion from consumption, that implies waste and passive depletion of resources,⁽¹⁾ to "usership", which instead draws satisfaction from experiences of use and requires time, attention and care for the things we choose to buy and use.^{(6, 7)} We need to shift our perception of people from being solely identified as consumers to recognizing that we are all users and contributors to society, culture, environment and economy through our own skills, creativity, agency, care and respect for each other.^(1-7)

See also: Overconsumption, Paradigm change, Systems thinking, Systems change, Post-growth economy, Sustainable fashion, Post-growth fashion, Prosperity, Sufficiency, Well-being.

B Corp is an advanced certification system that goes beyond product or service considerations. Instead, B Corp certification evaluates the overall social and environmental conduct of businesses (across industries) by considering their impact on workers, customers, communities, and the environment. The B Corp rating is based on past performance, not on future aspirations, which means that only companies that have been in operation for a minimum of 12 months are eligible to be considered for the B Corp mark. However, start-ups can apply for Pending B Corp status which enables them to register their commitment to strong social and environmental standards. Certified B Corps are required to amend their legal documents to oblige their board of directors to balance profit and purpose, and aim to benefit all stakeholders as opposed to just shareholders of the business. All certified B Corps sign the B Corp Declaration of Interdependence, whose two opening clauses state that 1. “we must be the change we seek in the world” and 2. “all business should be conducted as if people and place mattered”.⁽²⁾ Currently there are over 2500 certified B Corps in more than 50 countries worldwide (NB: Valid at the time of writing, January 2020).^(1-3)

The Better Cotton Initiative (BCI) is a global NGO and a cotton sustainability program that was originally conceived by the World Wildlife Fund and launched in 2009. The Better Cotton Initiative supports continuous improvement in the cotton farming sector by setting standards to ensure that cotton is grown with methods that minimize water use and chemicals and support regenerative agriculture. The BCI program includes a set of standards and requirements for cotton producers, following seven principles: minimize harmful impacts of crop protection practices; promote water stewardship; care for health of the soil; enhance biodiversity and use land responsibly; care for and preserve fiber quality; promote decent work standards; and operate an effective management system. According to the BCI data, 2 million farmers in 21 countries are currently licensed under the initiative.⁽¹⁾ However, the Better Cotton Initiative has also been criticized for a lack of improvement monitoring, its weaker standards, and, consequently, for taking a significant market share from more stringent certifications such as the Global Organic Textiles Standard (GOTS) or OEKO-TEX.^(1-3)Third-party reviewers have also noted that Better Cotton standards need stronger criteria and closer producer monitoring to match the ecological impact of the organic alternatives.⁽²⁾

See also: bluesign®, B Corp.

bluesign® is a certification system that evaluates the use of chemicals, materials, processes and also the finished textile products against five sustainability principles: resource efficiency (chemicals and raw materials, energy, water); consumer safety; air emissions; water emissions; and occupational health and safety. The term ‘bluesign® system partner’ then refers to any organization whose products meet these standards, from brands to manufacturers and chemical suppliers. The bluesign® certification requires that products consist of minimum 90% bluesign® textiles and 30% bluesign® accessories. Launched in Switzerland in 2000, the bluesign® certification is currently considered one of the most stringent worldwide, as it requires a holistic measuring of social and environmental performance, including elimination of all hazardous and polluting substances across the entire supply chain.^(1-4)

See also: B Corp, Hazardous chemicals.

The Global Recycle Standard (GRS) is a certification that verifies the volume of recycled material in a final product. As a minimum requirement, products must contain at least 20% recycled materials based on the ISO 14021:2016 definition of Recycled Content. The GRS aims to increase use of recycled materials through accurate labeling and tracking. Its requirements include standards in five areas: recycled materials; supply chain; working conditions; environment (energy and water use, air and water pollution, waste); and chemical use for each production stage. The GRS is one of the group of certifications by the global NGO Textile Exchange, also including the Organic Content Standard (OCS) and the Responsible Wool Standard (RWS).^(1-3)

See also: Greenwashing, Recyclability, Non-virgin materials, Closed-loop recycling, Circular economy, Public awareness.

The Global Organic Textile Standard (GOTS), launched in 2006, is a certification that verifies the organic status of textiles across the supply chain, from raw materials to processing, manufacturing, packaging, labeling, trading and distribution. To obtain the certification, products must contain the minimum of 70% natural organic fibers. GOTS includes stringent social and environmental requirements, including chemical use and inputs, additional fiber inputs, wastewater treatment facilities, employment rights and working conditions.⁽¹⁾ The certification process is managed by four member organizations: the Soil Association (UK), the Organic Trade Association (US), the Internationale Verband der Naturtextilwirtschaft (DE) and the Japan Organic Cotton Association (JP). GOTS is globally recognized as one of the highest standard certifications for organic material. However, it has been criticized especially for weaker enforcement of social standards, including a lack of commitment to living wages and decent working conditions.^(2,3)

See also: Cotton, Organic Content Standard (OCS), Better Cotton Initiative (BCI), OEKO-TEX, bluesign®, B Corp.

OEKO-TEX is a partnership of 18 separate research and testing institutions specializing in textiles and leather. Its base certification, STANDARD 100, includes strict chemical compliance standards and ensures that all final product components are completely free from substances harmful to humans. STANDARD 100 draws on a precautionary principle, meaning that its limits can be stricter than the values required by national and international legislation. The criteria for certification are updated annually to reflect new knowledge or legal requirements.⁽¹⁾ MADE IN GREEN (MiG) is a traceable product label that builds on the STANDARD 100, with additional environmental and social criteria that focus on 6 key areas: chemicals management; environmental performance; environmental management; social responsibility; quality management; and health protection and safety at work. These must be met across all stages of the supply chain, including textile production, spinning, weaving and knitting mills, finishing facilities and garment manufacturers.⁽²⁾

See also: Hazardous chemicals, bluesign®, B Corp.

The Organic Content Standard (OCS), launched in 2016, is a certification that verifies the volume of organically grown content in finished products. Chemical management in production or social and environmental issues that do not affect the integrity of the organic content are outside the scope of OCS. The OCS is one of the group of certifications by the global NGO Textile Exchange, also including the Global Recycle Standard (GRS) and the Responsible Wool Standard (RWS).^(1-2)

See also: Greenwashing, Cotton, Global Organic Textiles Standard (GOTS), Better Cotton Initiative (BCI), bluesign®, B Corp.

The Responsible Wool Standard (RWS) is a certification that recognizes best practices in wool production. The RWS certification includes strict criteria with a focus on animal welfare (nutrition, health, environmental infrastructure, behavior and handling); responsible land management (soil health, biodiversity, fertilizers and pesticides); and supply chain traceability from farm to final product. The OCS is one of the group of certifications by the global NGO Textile Exchange, also including the Global Recycle Standard (GRS) and the Organic Content Standard (OCS).^(1,2)

See also: Wool, bluesign®, B Corp.

The Anti-waste and Circular Economy Bill (La loi contre le gaspillage et à l’économie circulaire) is a newly adopted French law that extends the existing ban on food waste (introduced in France in 2016), to all non-food products. The Anti-waste and Circular Economy Bill will come into force in 2021 and will prohibit disposal, i.e. depositing in landfills and incineration, of all products. Instead, all companies, including producers, distributors, retailers, and on-line trading platforms will be required to donate or recycle all their unsold stock. France is the first country in the world to introduce such legislation, with the implementation schedule planned for 2021-2023. The bill will apply to all products with existing Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) collection and recycling channels (e.g. packaging, batteries, medicines, tyres, paper and newspapers, textiles and shoes, furniture, household appliances) from the end of 2021. The remaining sectors (e.g. professional packaging, building products or materials, toys, sports and leisure articles, DIY and garden articles, drain oils, cigarette butts, chewing gums, sanitary textiles (wipes, paper towels, cottons, etc.), and fishing gear) will be required to comply by the end of 2023 at the latest. In addition to reducing waste, the bill is based around other key areas of concern such as eliminating disposable plastic, improving information for consumers through environmental, durability and repairability labelling; better production methods that incorporate end of life solutions and fight against planned obsolescence; and developing networks and infrastructure for re-use.^(1-6)

See also: Waste, CO2 emissions, Energy use, Externalized costs, Overconsumption, Packaging, Closed-loop recycling.

See Green Public Procurement (GPR).

Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) is a policy tool which requires that all environmental costs of the entire product lifecycle are included in its market price and carried by the producer who is responsible for its design specifications. The EPR costs for designs with high environmental impact and a lack of end-of-life solutions then reflect the true price of the product and so incentivize more responsible design and systems thinking. While EPR schemes have been applied in other sectors such as packaging, electronics, batteries and vehicles, increasingly implemented across the world, France is currently the only country with an EPR scheme for clothing, linen and footwear. A wider global implementation of EPR schemes for fashion products can draw on lessons from the existing EPR scheme (ECO-TLC). It also hinges on the promotion and support of multiple scenarios for extending clothing lifetimes as well as on developing sufficient capacity in sorting, collection and recycling facilities through investment and innovation.^(1-7)

See also: Accountability, Corporate social responsibility (CSR), Sustainable development, Recyclability, Closed-loop recycling, Circular economy.

Green Public Procurement (GPR), also known as circular procurement, is a policy tool for public and private organizations that prioritizes purchase of products and services that have respect for the environment at their core. Apart from setting an example by responsible, value-based sourcing, green public procurement also sets new standards for procurement practices. By stimulating market demand for environmentally sound product and service options, green public procurement can build economies of scale for currently niche solutions and so accelerate a paradigm change towards more sustainable lifestyles in response to climate emergency.^(1-4)

See also: Sustainable development, Systems thinking, Systems change, Accountability, Care.

Plastic restriction refers to policy measures adopted at national and international levels to reduce the volume of plastic that accumulates in landfills and pollutes the oceans. Plastic pollution is currently one of the world’s biggest environmental challenges. Research estimates that as little as 9% of plastic generated globally between 2015-2017 was recycled, while the rest ended up being either incinerated (12%) or landfilled (79%).⁽²⁾ Since the early 1990s nearly half of global plastic waste was exported to China. However, in response to the severe environmental and public health consequences of this practice, amplified by the growth of China’s own consumer culture, in January 2018 the country introduced a ban on import of several categories of waste, including some kinds of plastic.⁽¹⁾ China’s ban accelerated the need to address the worldwide issues of plastic waste, a large proportion of which comes from packaging, catering for the lifestyles of high-income countries such as the United States, Australia and the countries of the European Union. The United Nation’s review of 192 countries showed that as of July 2018, 127 countries introduced some kind of regulation of plastic bags (in some cases going back to the 2000s), 27 now regulate either selected single-use plastic products (e.g. plates, cups or straws) or have limits on their production levels, and 8 countries have laws that control the use and manufacture of plastic microbeads in personal care and detergents.⁽³⁾ Yet, to truly address the alarming impacts of global plastic pollution, we need more systemic, long-term solutions that will corrode the throwaway mindset and the market logic that enables unlimited manufacture of materials and products that pose serious risks to human health and the environment.^(1-7)

See also: Global inequality, Microfiber pollution, Waste, Waste classification, Take-make-use-dispose model, Circular Economy, Recyclability, Biodegradable materials, Extended producer responsibility, Anti-Waste and Circular Economy Bill.

Waste classification refers to the identification of different types of waste for the purpose of appropriate waste management, recovery and disposal. Classifying and separating waste by type helps protect the environment and human health, and to maximize responsible use of resources. While waste can be classified in multiple ways, depending on purpose, local requirements, and available infrastructure, key examples would include separating hazardous and non-hazardous waste across all waste streams such as municipal (household), industrial, agricultural or construction and demolition waste. More granular examples of classification for the purpose of separate municipal collections can include categories such as food waste, paper, cardboard, plastic, glass, metal, batteries, electrical and electronic equipment or textiles and clothing. The new EU Waste Directive adopted in 2018 sets out new targets for separate collection, recycling and landfilling, with the ambition for the EU to become the world leader in waste management and recycling. This includes separate collection of textiles and clothing to become mandatory across the EU in 2025.^(1-4) Waste classification and management pose considerable challenges for rapidly developing countries with growing urban populations such as China(5). While the country started piloting waste classification in cities in 2000 and has introduced compulsory waste classification in major cities since 2019, the results are still highly unsatisfactory due to long-established habits and a lack of clarity in separating criteria and collection facilities.^(6-9) With China’s status as the leading global producer of textiles and clothing, textile waste is another major contributor to the country’s waste streams and despite gradual improvements, millions of tons of both pre-consumer and post-consumer textiles still end up in local landfills every year.^(10,11) It is also important to recognize that in a globalized world, waste classification and management present are a complex global issue. While waste collections are coordinated on local, regional and national levels, further stages of waste management, including recycling and re-use, often rely on global infrastructures. This comes with the need for compatibility of requirements and regulations, to remove unnecessary administrative barriers. For example, harmonizing rules on when textiles and clothing are considered waste and when they are a material (so called end of waste criteria), could be a key enabler for improving the global rates of textile re-use and recycling, which are still extremely low.^(11-14)

See also: Off-cut waste, Incineration, Landfill, CO2 emissions, Hazardous chemicals, Microfiber pollution, Take-make-use-dispose model, End of life, Circular economy, Closed-loop recycling, Anti-Waste and Circular Economy Bill, Extended producer responsibility, Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals.

The following section helps to signpost readers to initiatives and organisations working in the field of fashion and/or sustainability. This is not an exhaustive list, and terms will continue to be added on a regular basis. Inclusion here does not constitute an endorsement from any of the co-authors of the Glossary.

Centre for Circular Design (CCD) is a University of the Arts London research and knowledge exchange center based at Chelsea College of Arts. Founded in 2017, CCD’s key focus is on using practice design research to support and accelerate the transition to circular economy in fashion and textiles. CCD’s expertise includes emerging technology, circular materials, lifecycle design thinking, and circular mindsets, with international research and consultancy engagements across academia, cultural institutions, industry, and commerce⁽¹⁾.

Centre for Sustainable Fashion (CSF)⁽¹⁾is a University of the Arts London research, education and knowledge exchange centre.

Based at London College of Fashion, the centre provokes, challenges and questions the status quo in fashion to contribute to a system that recognises its ecological context and honours equity. CSF shapes and contributes to Fashion Design for Sustainability as a field of study, industry practices and educational models. By exploring and cross-referencing fashion’s relational ecological, social, economic and cultural agendas, the centre engages in transformational design practices. CSF takes a pluralistic, systemic approach, collaborating across its network of universities, businesses and other organisations from all around the world.

The Common Objective (CO), previously the Ethical Fashion Forum, is a business network that matches brands, retailers, suppliers and other fashion professionals with connections and resources they need to succeed in the sustainable fashion business. CO also provides a knowledge platform with resources that include material toolkits, podcasts, articles, research and insights reports; available through multiple level subscription options.⁽¹⁾

The Ellen MacArthur Foundation (EMF) is a charity whose core focus is on accelerating the transition to a circular economy. Founded in 2010, the EMF works across six key areas: learning; business; institutions, governments and cities; insight and analysis; systemic initiatives; and communications.⁽¹⁾ The EMF’s Make Fashion Circular initiative aims to encourage collaboration and innovation, both seen as key priorities in the industry’s transition to a circular model. The initiative has identified three ambitions for the future: products made from safe, renewable materials; new business models to increase use; and old products turned into new ones. The core outputs of the Make Fashion Circular initiative include the influential report A New Textiles Economy: Redesigning Fashion’s Future,⁽³⁾ a much quoted source on fashion’s environmental impact. In 2019, the initiative also launched the Jeans Redesign project that sets new product requirements for circular denim, including standards on durability, material health, recyclability and traceability. Circular jeans that meet these standards are expected to reach the market in August 2020.⁽⁴⁾

The Ethical Trading Initiative (ETI) is an alliance of companies, trade unions and NGOs that work together to define best practice for business ethical trade standards and promoting workers' rights. Founded in 1998, ETI now provides a Base Code, outlining principles and policies that companies can adapt to their own operations and supply chain. ETI is also involved in supporting trade unions, building strategic alliances, and lobbying governments and brands.⁽¹⁾

Extinction Rebellion (XR) is a citizen action movement using non-violent civil disobedience to demand that governments take urgent and radical action in response to the climate emergency, biodiversity loss and related global economic and social impacts. XR was established in the UK in October 2018 and it has swiftly become an international movement, with 636 recognized branches in 56 countries including the United States, Australia, Germany, Netherlands, Canada, Japan and Argentina. Extinction Rebellion has the following three demands: 1. Tell the Truth: Government must tell the truth by declaring a climate and ecological emergency, working with other institutions to communicate the urgency for change; 2. Act Now: Government must act to halt biodiversity loss and reduce greenhouse gas emissions to net zero by 2025; 3. Beyond Politics: Government must create and be led by the decisions of a Citizens’ Assembly on climate and ecological justice.⁽²⁾ The group uses arrest as a strategy to work towards its aims and its actions have received widespread media coverage. Although not directly connected, XR was established in the same year that saw the rise of the worldwide school strike for the climate Fridays for Future. XR identifies the current fashion system as a major contributor to the climate crisis and the group has launched a campaign to boycott buying fashion for a year. As an alternative, XR encourage sharing, swapping, rental and second-hand purchases. Their Fashion, Tell the Truth working group has petitioned to cancel Fashion Weeks and to change the current fashion attitude: “Stop the dream and communicate the reality of our situation. … Admit that incremental ‘solutions’ won’t save life on earth; only systemic change will. Use your power to communicate the truth about this crisis and how this industry is complicit. Say it as though all life depends on it.”⁽³⁾ XR US has also targeted the media, holding a protest outside the Manhattan office of The New York Times to demand that the publication increases its climate emergency coverage.^(1-5)

See United Nations Fashion Industry Charter on Climate Action

See G7 Fashion Pact

Fashion Revolution is a global movement for a fairer, safer, cleaner and more transparent fashion industry. It was founded in 2013 in response to the Rana Plaza disaster and its key activities concentrate around the annual Fashion Revolution Week, that marks the anniversary of Rana Plaza. The global impact of the campaign Who Made My Clothes with the accompanying hashtag #imadeyourclothes has been growing and Fashion Revolution now has voluntary representatives across all continents. Its annually published Fashion Transparency Index reviews the world's largest brands and retailers in terms of the volume and character of data they disclose about their human rights and environmental policy practice and impacts.⁽¹⁾

See also: Fashion Revolution resources.

#FridaysforFuture is a global climate campaign that began after the then 15-year-old Greta Thunberg sat in front of the Swedish parliament for three consecutive Fridays in August 2018, holding up the sign ‘Skolstrejk för Klimatet’ (School Strike for Climate), sharing her motivations for doing so on the social media. In September, Greta decided to continue striking on Fridays until the Swedish parliament provides guarantees for policies that will keep global warming well under the 2˚C set in the Paris Agreement to prevent irreversible damage caused by climate change. Her example inspired similar protests by students and their parents worldwide, later leading to a series of global climate strikes, of which the one in September 2019 that attracted 7.6 million people in 185 countries was the largest climate strike in history to date.^(1,2)

The G7 Fashion Pact is a global coalition of fashion and textile businesses across the whole supply chain, with a commitment to three environmental goals: stop global warming, restore biodiversity loss and protect the oceans. Founded at the behest of Emmanuel Macron and launched by the Kering Group Chair and CEO François-Henri Pinault at the 2019 G7 Summit in Biarritz, the signatories of the Pact pledge to meet a set of Science-based Targets (SBTs) for each goal. Currently, 56 companies have joined the Pact (NB: Valid at the time of writing, January 2020).^(1,2) While celebrated for bringing together competing brands to collaborate, the Fashion Pact has also faced criticism for possible greenwashing, a lack of human rights considerations, punitive measures for those who do not meet targets, and for failing to address overproduction.^(2-5)

The Global Fashion Agenda (GFA) is a global leadership forum for industry collaboration on sustainability in fashion. The initiative stands behind the organization of the Copenhagen Fashion Summit, the leading business event on fashion and sustainability, which brings together the industry to find common solutions and to accelerate fashion's transition to responsible practices. GFA also publishes reports and regular updates on the industry, most notably the annual Pulse of the Fashion Industry series that evaluates global fashion and sustainability progress. At the 2017 Copenhagen Fashion Summit, GFA launched the 2020 Circular Fashion System Commitment as a part of which over 90 brands committed to immediate improvements across design, collection and re-use of garments.⁽¹⁾

The International Labour Organization (ILO) was established by the United Nations in 1919, with the aim to bring together governments, employers and workers, and to define labor standards for all workers globally. The ILO stands behind the key international labor rights legislation, policies and standards, underpinned by eight fundamental conventions: Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise Convention (1948); Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention (1949); Forced Labour Convention, (1930), Abolition of Forced Labour Convention (1957), Minimum Age Convention (1973), Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention (1999), Equal Remuneration Convention (1951); Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention (1958).⁽¹⁾

The People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) is the largest worldwide animal rights organization with over 6.5 million members and supporters globally. PETA was founded in 1980 and its key areas of focus include the mistreatment and suffering of animals in laboratories as well as in food, clothing, and entertainment industries. PETA also addresses cruelty on domestic animals and cruel killing of animals that are considered pests. Its key international branches include the UK, France, Germany, Netherlands, India, Australia, Asia, and Latin America, all working across education, cruelty investigations, research, animal rescue, legislation, events, and campaigns.⁽¹⁾

The Sustainable Apparel Coalition (SAC) is a global alliance for sustainable production in the apparel, footwear and textile industry. Its membership includes over 250 brands, manufacturers, NGOs, academic institutions and governments, working together to reduce the environmental and social impacts across the fashion industry. The organization is responsible for the Higg Index, an open-source set of tools that enable businesses to measure and score their sustainability performance.⁽¹⁾

Union of Concerned Researchers in Fashion (UCRF) is a global initiative of fashion and sustainability researchers whose foundation in 2018 was inspired by the example of the Union of Concerned Scientists formed in 1969 over concerns about the misuse of science in support of the status quo and to feed political agendas. The UCRF was founded by leading scholars in fashion and sustainability, Kate Fletcher (Centre for Sustainable Fashion, University of the Arts London), Lynda Grose (California College of the Arts), Timo Rissanen (Parsons School of Design) and Mathilda Tham (Linnaeus University, Sweden), and the Union’s manifesto has since been signed by over 200 academic members worldwide NB: Valid at the time of writing, January 2020. The core mission of the Union is to prevent oversimplification and fragmentation of response to the climate crisis within the fashion sector and to unite fashion researchers in knowledge leadership and actions that can disrupt business-as-usual and offer new systemic visions for the relationship between people, environment and fashion.^(1,2)

The United Nations Fashion Industry Charter on Climate Action is a voluntary industry agreement launched in December 2018 at the Climate Summit (COP 24) in Katowice, Poland. Drawing on the commitments of the Paris Agreement, the signatories commit to achieving the target of 30% reduction in their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 2030, with the ultimate goal of a carbon neutral fashion industry by 2050.⁽¹⁾ The signed declaration recognizes that "current solutions and business models will not be sufficient to deliver on the current climate agenda" and so "fashion industry needs to embrace a deeper, more systemic change and scale low-carbon solutions".⁽²⁾ The 46 founding signatories include the Kering Group, Stella McCartney, Burberry, and H&M Group and the Charter remains open to new signatories from within and beyond the fashion sector.⁽³⁾

See also: Efficiency, Growth, Post-growth economy, Carbon footprint, Carbon offsetting, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Paradigm change, Systems change.

Who Made My Clothes is a worldwide campaign initiated by the Fashion Revolution in response to the absence of transparency in the fashion supply chains and a lack of understanding regarding where and how the clothes we all wear are produced. The campaign aims to raise public awareness and spark curiosity and empathy for the processes and the people behind fashion production, encouraging closer connections between makers and wearers of clothing. Who Made My Clothes is one of the key activities during the annual Fashion Revolution Week, that marks the anniversary of the Rana Plaza disaster in Bangladesh on April 24, 2013. The hashtag #whomademyclothes invites individuals to demand more transparency from fashion brands, through both social media and off-line events that take place worldwide. The accompanying hashtag #imadeyourclothes enables individual makers, manufacturers and brands to respond to the call and demonstrate transparency in their practices. Who Made My Clothes continues to have an immense global impact, demonstrated also by the 700 million impressions of posts on the social media and the hashtag reach of 289 million in April 2019. The number of brands and producers that have responded to the hashtag has grown year on year, with 12,689 posts using #imadeyourclothes during the weeks leading up to and following after the 2019 Fashion Revolution Week.^(1-3)

The Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals Programme (ZDHC) is a multi-stakeholder initiative focused on eliminating hazardous substances from the fashion supply chains and sourcing sustainable alternatives to conventional chemicals. The collaborators include brands, testing facilities, research institutes and chemical companies, with the collective aim to reduce environmental pollution and health hazards directly linked to the fashion’s reliance on toxic substances.⁽¹⁾ The Manufacturing Restricted Substance List (MRSL) issued by ZDHC has been widely adopted across the industry. However, as its focus is on pollution from manufacturing facilities, especially wastewater discharges, other issues such as production of fiber are not currently addressed, and so it has faced criticism for setting less ambitious targets than other available MRSLs.^(2,3)

See also: Hazardous chemicals, Health hazards, Manufacturing Restricted Substance List (MRSL), Water pollution, Accountability, Externalized costs.

The following section helps to signpost readers to external tools, resources and frameworks that focus on fashion and sustainability. This is not an exhaustive list, and terms will continue to be added on a regular basis. Inclusion here does not constitute an endorsement from any of the co-authors of the Glossary.

The Environmental Profit & Loss (EP&L) account developed by the luxury group Kering is an open-source business management tool that supports companies in making an in-depth analysis of their environmental impacts. The EP&L aims to translate these impacts into a business-recognized measure – monetary value – so allowing for comparison across multiple businesses and business units. The tool is designed to help develop strategies, targets, and initiatives to mitigate against environmental costs. The EP&L methodology covers all tiers in the supply chain, from own operations and retail stores, through assembly and manufacturing, to processing and production of raw materials. Information is collated onsite and from suppliers, and each tier is assessed across six impact areas: greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, water use, generation of waste, water pollution, air pollution and land use. If primary data is not available, secondary data is used and adapted to the specific context. Following the analysis, environmental impacts are assigned economic values that can be translated and understood in terms of Kering’s financial activities. The evaluation methodologies were developed in collaboration with PwC UK.⁽¹⁾

The global campaign Fashion Revolution offers multiple tools and resources to raise public awareness and empower individuals, community groups and companies to take action and radically improve social and environmental practices across the fashion supply chain. Fashion Revolution’s open-source resources include campaigning materials, how-to guides, educational materials and reading lists that encourage people to "be curious, find out, do something". The formats range from downloadable posters, shopping tips, teacher packs, to Fashion Revolution’s annual Fashion Transparency Index that reviews the world's largest brands and retailers in terms of the volume and character of data they disclose about their human rights and environmental policy practice and impacts. Fashion Revolution acts as a link between individuals and organizations and since its establishment in 2013 it has developed into an established platform, giving voice to a global movement that demands radical change and accountability from brands and governments.^(1-3)

The Higg Index is an open-source three-piece set of product tools developed by the Sustainable Apparel Coalition (SAC), which enables businesses to measure and score their sustainability performance. 1. Product Tools allow their users to measure impact at the product level; 2. Facility Tools measure environmental and social sustainability at manufacturing facilities; and 3. Brand and Retail Tools measure environmental and social impact across the value chain.⁽¹⁾ Among these, the most widely adopted tool is the Higg Materials Sustainability Index (Higg MSI), a cradle-to-gate scoring methodology that helps measure material impacts across five key areas: climate change, eutrophication, fossil fuels resource depletion, water scarcity, and chemicals. Each material, from cotton to leather, is assigned a points-based score according to raw material source, yarn and textile formation, preparation and coloration.⁽²⁾ The Higg MSI scoring methodology is based on life cycle assessment (LCA) data and weighted also on how commonly materials are used; this means that for example cotton will have a heavier weighting than cashmere.⁽³⁾