Fashion has the power to inspire, nurture imagination, aspiration and ingenuity, and to offer pleasure. It enables livelihoods to millions of people and is a crucial element in identity shaping and in connecting people socially and culturally. At the same time, current communication, sales, production, use and disposal of fashion products have alarming impacts on the well-being of ecosystems and communities across the world. Fashion is both directly and indirectly implicated in the climate crisis.

The United Nations Fashion Industry Charter for Climate Action confirms that current operations cannot deliver on the reductions needed before 2030. It is now clear that old ways of working must stop and that the whole fashion sector needs to commit to a deep systems change that will reflect the current state of the world.

Fashion production and use put high demands on natural resources, land use and human labor, thus affecting lives around the world. Materials used in fashion production require high water use. For example, cultivation of cotton, the most widespread of all natural materials, requires intensive irrigation to increase crop yields. Yet, cotton is often grown in areas that already suffer from water scarcity. Large quantities of water are also needed for dyeing processes. These also rely on heavy use of chemicals which can cause water pollution and pose serious health hazards for local communities and ecosystems. In addition, chemicals are needed for turning raw materials into textiles, a complex process that also relies on high energy use. Production of synthetic materials, such as polyester, is especially energy intensive and leads to high levels of CO2 emissions. Synthetic materials are also responsible for the release of microplastics that seriously endanger biodiversity of marine wildlife as well as human health.

Despite improved efficiency of water and energy use and reduced emissions per item, the constant growth of the industry and increasing volumes of production, sales, consumption and waste generation mean that all such savings are inevitably lost. In addition, valuable clothes are discarded daily around the world and only a small fraction of these get resold or recycled. Large amounts of new, unsold clothes are also incinerated or end up in landfills. All this further multiplies the already extremely high carbon footprint and resource-intensive impact of fashion.

- Centre for Sustainable Fashion

See CO2 emissions.

Also known as carbon emissions, CO2 emissions refer to the release of carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere. CO2 emissions are linked to burning of fossil fuels and biomass, land use and management, as well as to industrial production. As the principal greenhouse gas (GHG), CO2 critically affects the radiation balance on Earth and significantly contributes to global warming and climate change.⁽¹⁾ The fashion industry is a major source of CO2 emissions. These are linked especially to the production of synthetic materials and also the extremely high volumes of prematurely discarded items that are sent for incineration or end up in landfill.

See also: Distribution, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), Efficiency, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Carbon, Carbon footprint, Carbon neutral, Carbon offsetting, Decarbonization, Ecological footprint, United Nations Fashion Industry Charter on Climate Action.

The term ‘chemicals’ here refers to artificially made substances that are produced by or used in reactions that change atoms or molecules. While chemicals vary in their impact, production of fashion products relies heavily on the use of chemicals that cause considerable environmental damage, including decreased soil fertility and water pollution, which are also responsible for serious health hazards. Chemical pesticides and fertilizers are used in production of natural materials such as cotton for protection from insects, molds and weeds, and to increase yields. Chemicals are also needed to process fibers into yarns and yarns into fabric. Dyes, surface treatments, performance enhancing coatings and treatments, application of water and stain repellents and flame retardants are all chemical-intensive stages of textile production. Considerable health risks are involved for those handling these chemicals, often in conditions without sufficient health and safety measures. Despite gradual improvements, use of hazardous chemicals is still a widespread practice among world-leading brands.⁽¹⁾ In addition, substances used at different stages of production often remain in textiles and their gradual release in the use stage poses further dangers to human and environmental health.^(1-5)

See also: Hazardous chemicals, Manufacturing Restricted Substance List (MRSL), Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals (ZDHC), Synthetic materials, Water scarcity, Ecological footprint, Human rights, Bleaching, Chromium, Distressing, Dyeing, Finishing.

Cotton is a soft fiber that grows in bolls, or protective cases, on cotton plants and it is one of the oldest fibers cultivated for textiles. Cotton farming accounts for 2.3% of the world's arable land use across approximately 75 mostly developing countries, with China and India being the global leaders.⁽¹⁾ Being a key cash crop, cotton provides income for millions of farmers, but it is also responsible for severe social and environmental impacts. The global average water use for 1kg of cotton (equivalent to 4 T-shirts) is 10.000 liters.^(2,3) Although cotton has certain tolerance to drought and heat, a steady water supply increases yields and improves quality and fiber length. As a result, it is estimated that nearly 3/4 of cotton is irrigated.⁽¹⁾ This has damaging consequences on the water supply and local water balances in regions that already suffer from water scarcity, such as Egypt, Uzbekistan, Pakistan and Australia. In addition, cotton is highly vulnerable to pest infestation, and the cultivation of conventional cotton (as opposed to genetically modified (GM) crops, organic cotton or Better Cotton Initiative (BCI) cotton relies on more pesticides per unit than any other crop.⁽⁴⁾ Toxic chemicals used in cotton cultivation cause water pollution and have long-term impacts on soil fertility, pest resistance and biodiversity loss. They also pose serious health hazards for local communities and especially for workers handling them, including child laborers.^(1-4) However, the physical comfort and technical properties of cotton are hard to match and currently no comparable alternatives exist in the market.⁽⁵⁾ The best available options include organic cotton, BCI cotton and other certified, more responsibly grown cotton. Yet, these options still cover only a fraction of the cotton market.⁽⁵⁾

See also: Natural materials, Bonded labor, Farmer suicide, Child labor, Migrant workers, Modern slavery, Hazardous chemicals.

Distribution refers to the shipping and logistics of raw fiber, materials, components and unfinished items in the process of manufacturing and subsequent delivery of final products to the end users via retail outlets or e-commerce. The global character of the fashion supply chain means that raw materials may originate in one country but are likely to be spun into yarn in another, then they will be shipped to be woven into fabric elsewhere and later transported for finishing into yet another location, still different to where the final product will be manufactured. The rapid shift to offshore manufacture since the 1990s means that most of these processes typically take place away from the geographic location of the commissioning company and its target market, and so finished products are shipped yet again to where they are sold. All this is not without impact; the collective travel and distribution further increases the CO2 emissions and the overall ecological footprint of fashion products. Despite this, the impact of distribution is estimated to be relatively low in comparison to other stages of the fashion value chain.^(1-4)

See also: Packaging, Carbon footprint, Carbon offsetting, Carbon neutral, Externalized costs, Ecological footprint, Energy use, Reshoring.

Dust is a fine particle of solid dry matter that can be transported by air. Dust pollution refers to air pollution by dust substances of different origin and size. Examples include, but are not limited to, domestic dust, pollen dust, sand dust, road dust, metal dust, silica dust, paper dust, plastic dust or textile dust. Exposure to dust pollution is linked with health hazards that often go unnoticed for a long time, because particles that cause most damage are often invisible. In the fashion and textile industry, handling of dyestuff in textile finishing as well as multiple cotton and wool processes are associated with serious health risks. These include byssinosis, a respiratory condition that causes breathing problems and chest tightness; occupational asthma; chronic bronchitis and cancer. While dust pollution is an issue that affects workers regardless of geography, its harmful impacts are aggravated by lack of preventive and protective measures in major production countries that still lack stringent health and safety criteria, such as China, India, Pakistan, Myanmar or Bangladesh.^(1-6)

See also: Dyes, Dyeing, Chemicals, Hazardous chemicals, Externalized costs, Offshore manufacture, Collective bargaining.

Dyes are natural and synthetic substances that chemically bind to materials to which they are applied. The use of textile dyes puts high demands on water use, which is critical because textile production often takes place in areas that already suffer from water scarcity. The process of dyeing is also a major source of water pollution, as many textile-producing regions lack adequate environmental and health & safety legislation. As a result, unfiltered wastewater is often discharged into local waterways. This causes serious environmental and health hazards, aggravated by the fact that many dyes contain heavy metals such as lead or cadmium and some can break down into carcinogenic compounds. Further concerns are linked to the continuous release of such substances through domestic laundering.^(1-4)

See also: Chemicals, Hazardous chemicals, Chromium, Manufacturing Restricted Substance List (MRSL), Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals (ZDHC), Ecological footprint, Externalized costs.

See Growth.

Efficiency refers to the ratio of effort and resources expended to achieve the intended purpose.⁽¹⁾ In fashion, considerable savings in energy use and CO2 emissions have been achieved due to research progress and technological innovation. Yet, the net benefits of these savings are lost because of the constantly escalating speed and volume of production, consumption, and waste.⁽²⁾ For example, while the fashion industry reported a 30% increase in resource efficiency per unit between 1980 and 2010, it is also estimated that by 2007 the number of new garments sold almost doubled.⁽³⁾ This means that technological solutions to resource efficiency have little significance if they are met by continuous growth of the industry that increases market demand and consumer expectations.^(4-5).

See also: Overconsumption, Paradigm change, Systems change, Post-growth economy, Post-growth fashion.

Energy use refers to the amount of energy required to produce goods and provide services. Fashion products put high demands on energy use throughout their whole life cycle. This starts with fiber production, manufacturing, distribution and retail, and continues through to domestic laundering and maintenance during use. At the stage of disposal, incineration, depositing in landfill, and recycling, all require a high energy input. All these processes rely mainly on non-renewable resources such as fossil fuels, which not only depletes natural resources but also causes further environmental damage by high CO2 and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. While considerable savings in energy use and emissions per unit have been achieved through research progress and technological innovation, these benefits are virtually lost because of the constantly escalating speed and volume of fashion production, consumption and waste generation.⁽¹⁾

See also: Efficiency, Growth, Overconsumption, Carbon footprint, Ecological footprint, Paradigm change, Systems change.

The United Nations define environmental costs as “costs connected with the actual or potential deterioration of natural assets due to economic activities”.⁽¹⁾ The consideration of environmental costs is closely linked to the concept of the Triple Bottom Line that extends the focus of traditional accountancy from considering only financial transactions and profit (bottom line) to also accounting for the impacts that business activities have on people (social bottom line) and the environment (environmental bottom line).⁽²⁾

See also: Climate emergency, Ecological footprint, Carbon footprint, Accountability, Corporate social responsibility (CSR), Sustainable development, Environmental Profit & Loss (EP&L).

Externalized costs, also known as negative externalities, are social and environmental impacts that businesses offload to third parties, typically those with no influence over such developments, to maximize their profits. The discussion of externalities links especially to the acute awareness that the social and environmental costs of goods consumed in the Global North are largely outsourced to the countries of the Global South. These countries often provide cheap labor and generally still lack strict environmental standards for production, disposal of industrial waste or sufficient protection of workers’ rights and their health and safety. This was sadly highlighted by the collapse of the Rana Plaza building, Bangladesh, in April 2013 in which 1,134 workers who produced clothing for international high street brands were killed, and many more left with life-long debilitating injuries.

See also: Global inequality, Offshore manufacture, Supply chain, Transparency, Water pollution, Water scarcity, Chemicals, Hazardous chemicals, Health hazards, Human rights, Poverty, Modern slavery, Accountability, Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR).

Fast fashion is a model of fashion production and consumption that relies on fast turnaround of styles and products with sales prices, often leading to fast discarding of pieces, cumulatively resulting in extremely high social and environmental costs throughout the entire value chain. The fast fashion model has expanded globally since the 1990s and the rise of offshore manufacture with access to cheap labor in developing countries has been a key enabler of its global expansion. The sudden availability of large volumes of inexpensive fast fashion items over the last 20-30 years created a mindset that makes it acceptable to "regularly consume and discard clothing".⁽¹⁾ High turnover of fashion products is currently a widespread practice and research shows that garments are often used for less than a season.⁽²⁾ It is estimated that the number of times a garment is worn before disposal has decreased by a worldwide average of 36% percent within the last two decades⁽³⁾, and the average number of times a garment gets worn is now lower in China than in Europe.⁽⁴⁾ It should be noted that no item of clothing can be accurately defined as ‘fast fashion’ as the cycle starts with the sowing of a seed or the extraction of oil, which takes place many months, years or decades before a finished garment is sold and worn.

See also: Overconsumption, Efficiency, Take-make-use-dispose model, Supply chain, Living wage, Modern slavery, Poverty, Accountability, Sustainable development.

Genetically modified crops are agricultural plants modified by insertion of new genetic information that changes or improves their natural traits, such as resistance to pests, diseases, weather, and increased nutrition value. An example includes genetically modified cotton, also known as biotech or Bt cotton. Bt cotton is modified through the gene of naturally occurring soil bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis to fortify the crop against common pests such as bollworm. It is estimated that genetically modified cotton now accounts for over three quarters of the global cotton production. It is known to produce higher yields in comparison to conventional cotton. In most cases, it also circumvents the need for using fertilizers.⁽¹⁾ While the benefits of using genetically modified cotton include more efficient growing and reduced need for agricultural chemicals, genetically modified crops have also been criticized for the corporate monopoly over the GM technology, and also for their potential environmental impacts such as building pest tolerance to resistant strains, potential persistence in the environment, and possible transfer of modified genes to other crops. In addition, critics have linked high input costs for Bt seeds and the resulting accrued debt to the increase in farmer suicides, although to date there is a lack of factual evidence to confirm that suicide rates of cotton growers are higher in comparison to other farmers (NB: Valid at the time of writing, December 2019).^(1-5)

See also: Cash crops, Bonded labor

In 1972, The Limits to Growth⁽¹⁾ report commissioned by The Club of Rome predicted that if current patterns of exponential economic and population expansion continued, the environmental limits of the planet could be reached within the next hundred years. An updated version of the report, Beyond the Limits,⁽²⁾ whose publication coincided with the 1992 United Nations Earth Summit, concluded that the environmental limits of the planet would be reached far sooner than the authors originally predicted. It is increasingly clear that pursuing exponential economic growth in the finite resources of the planet is impossible without dire global consequences for the environment and humanity. This has also led to the rise of the concept of post-growth economy. Post-growth thinkers highlight that economic development cannot dissociate itself from environmental limits and needs to carefully consider the future prosperity and well-being of both people and the planet.^(3-7)

See also: Planetary boundaries, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Post-growth fashion, Sufficiency, Brundtland Report.

Hazardous chemicals are chemicals that are known to pose serious hazards to human and environmental health. These may include, but are not limited to: substances that are carcinogenic; mutagenic; toxic for reproduction; those that cause allergic skin and respiratory reactions; endocrine disrupting chemicals; as well as substances that are persistent, bio accumulative or toxic when released into the aquatic systems and the environment.⁽¹⁾ All stages of textile production rely heavily on chemical use. The most common hazardous chemicals used in textile manufacturing, during the pre-treatment, dyeing, printing and finishing stages, include solvents, surfactants, water and soil repellents, biocides and pesticides, dyes/pigments, flame retardants, plasticizers and pigments.^(1,2) For example, a policy recommendation report by the Swedish Chemicals Agency compiled a non-exhaustive list of 1900 chemicals used in textile production, of which 165 were identified as hazardous under EU legislation⁽³⁾.^(1-5)

See also: Health hazards, Water pollution, Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals, Bleaching, Chromium, Distressing, Heavy metals, Stonewashing.

All stages of production, use and disposal of fashion products are associated with health hazards of varying intensity. These can include respiratory hazards, life-threatening diseases such as cancer, serious and debilitating injuries, and even death^(1.) For example, conventional cultivation of natural fibers such as cotton relies heavily on pesticides that are often handled by farmers and child laborers without sufficient protective equipment and health and safety measures after application. Toxic chemicals are also used in processing fibers into yarns and yarns into fabric. Despite gradual improvements, use of hazardous chemicals is still a widespread practice among world leading brands.^(2-5) In addition to serious hazards for those handling such substances in the production phase, once released to the environment these chemicals put human health at further risk through contamination of air, water and food chains.⁽²⁾ Workers throughout the global supply chain are known to work long hours in often unsafe conditions where a high number of health- and life-threatening incidents are a daily reality.

See also: Dyes, Dyeing, Water pollution, Microfiber pollution, Microplastics, Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals (ZHDC), Manufacturing Restricted Substance List (MRSL), Human rights, Externalized costs.

Incineration is the process of destruction of waste through burning. It is estimated that only around a quarter of used clothing gets reused or recycled globally, and while there are significant regional differences in collection rates, a global average of approximately 75% of used clothes end up either in landfill or are incinerated.⁽¹⁾ While incineration is relatively preferable to landfilling because it recovers some energy from the product and reduces the volume of waste in landfills, it also releases dangerous levels of CO2 emissions into the atmosphere and further increases the carbon footprint of fashion products.^(2,3) Incineration of items made of synthetic fibers contributes to microfiber pollution, as it can release microplastics into the environment. In addition, incineration leads to the build-up of toxic ash contaminated by heavy metals (e.g. lead, cadmium) and other highly toxic substances (e.g. dioxins). The ash is then often deposited in landfills, from where it can leak and cause severe damage to the environment and human health. As we are facing a climate emergency, the still widespread practice of incinerating new, unsold stock to protect fashion brand value, is especially alarming.⁽⁴⁾

See also: Health hazards, Water pollution, Externalized costs, Ecological footprint, Land use, Land degradation, Energy use, Take-make-use-dispose model, Extended Producer Responsibility, Anti-waste and Circular Economy Bill.

Irrigation refers to systems that deliver controlled quantities of water to agricultural crops or land. Irrigation of crops for textile production, especially cotton, puts high demands on water use. This is highly problematic because cotton cultivation often takes place in regions that already suffer from water scarcity. Although cotton has certain tolerance to drought and heat, a steady water supply increases yields and improves quality and fiber length. As a result, it is estimated that 73% of cotton produced globally is irrigated.⁽¹⁾ However, irrigation methods are often inefficient and cause further water loss before the water is delivered to the crop. Poor irrigation management and water over-withdrawal also damage local water sources such as rivers and lakes and have adverse impacts on local biodiversity, food supply and human health. In addition, in regions with poor irrigation infrastructure, irrigation is a labor-intensive task known to employ child labor.^(2,3)

See also: Global inequality, Land use, Cash crops, Human rights.

Landfill is an area of land where waste is buried under layers of earth. It is estimated that only around a quarter of used clothing globally gets reused or recycled, and while recycling collection rates differ significantly between regions, a global average of approximately 75% of discarded clothes end up either in incineration or are deposited in landfills.⁽¹⁾ According to the Ellen MacArthur Foundation, this equals one garbage truck of textiles every second.⁽¹⁾ A sizeable proportion of landfilled garments are items that are still fully functional and valuable, and so landfilling wastes precious resources used up in clothing production. Landfill deposits also incur enormous economic and environmental costs. For example, with the average cost of £100 per tonne, landfilled clothing costs the UK economy £82 million a year.⁽²⁾ Crucially, landfill deposits cause air pollution through methane and CO2 emissions. They also require large areas of land and so have adverse effects on biodiversity, soil fertility and depreciation of local landscapes. In developing countries such as India, the accelerating waste crisis in urbanized areas poses serious health hazards to both landfill scavengers and civilians, with recurring incidents of spontaneous combustion, landslides, and high levels of toxic gas emissions in surrounding areas. Groundwater pollution from landfill leaks is another concern, posing serious dangers to both local ecosystems and human health globally.^(1-3)

See also: Incineration, Land use, Land degradation, Water pollution, Air pollution, Health hazards, Externalized costs, Ecological footprint, Overconsumption, Extended Producer Responsibility, Anti-waste and Circular Economy Bill.

Microfibers are fibers less than 5 mm in size, that are shed from textiles and clothing during all stages of their life cycle, from production through to use and disposal.⁽¹⁾ While microfibers are shed from both natural materials and synthetic materials, synthetics such as polyester, nylon or acrylic are linked to shedding a specific subset of microfibers called microplastics (plastic particles less than 5 mm in size). It is estimated that as much as 20-35% of all primary source microplastics in the oceans are from synthetic textiles and the tendency is increasing.^(2,3) Microfiber release is now recognized as a major source of ocean pollution, with damaging effects on marine wildlife through ingestion of miniature plastic particles. There are also growing concerns about potential health implications for humans, as microfibers enter food chains and can act as carriers of harmful chemicals that persist in the environment.^(3,4)

See also: Water pollution, Biodiversity, Endangered species, Ecosystem, Health hazards.

Natural materials fall into two large categories: cellulose- or plant-based (e.g. cotton, hemp, linen) and protein- or animal-based (e.g. wool, silk, leather, down). While they often tend to be labeled as the "good" and preferable alternative to synthetic materials, social and environmental impacts of all materials vary in relation to where they come from and how they are produced. For example, cotton is a crop with high requirements of water use to increase crop yields and fiber length, which is highly problematic because it is largely grown in areas that already suffer from water scarcity. Conventionally grown cotton, (as opposed to genetically modified (GM) crops, organic cotton or Better Cotton Initiative (BCI)) cotton, also relies on heavy use of insecticides and pesticides. Animal-based materials including wool, leather, silk or down need careful consideration in terms of animal welfare, land use and intensive treatments with chemicals. The traceability of the supply chain, the selection of the right material for the right application, manufacturing processes, distribution, laundering and clothing care during use, and also how fashion products are disposed of at their end of life* must all come into the equation. Material sustainability is therefore complex and always context-dependent.^(1-5)

See also: Synthetic materials, Sustainable materials, Biodegradable materials, Blend materials, Mono materials, Virgin materials, Hazardous chemicals.

Noise is any kind of sound, especially one that is undesired, unpleasant or disturbing. Noise pollution refers to persistent noise at a given location, such as home, work place or a geographic area. While ambient noise pollution is an issue that often goes unnoticed, its impacts build over time. Routine exposure to noise has adverse impacts on human health and well-being. These include sleep disturbance, cardiovascular diseases, annoyance and other mental health issues, decreased cognitive performance, hearing impairment and hearing loss.^(1-3) As a result of industrialization, globalization and urbanization, more people are exposed to noise pollution now than ever before. Noise pollution is a persistent problem in the fashion and textile industry, especially in spinning and weaving mills. Noise induced hearing loss (NIHL) has long been one of the many occupational health hazards for global textile workers, millions of whom are daily exposed to noise levels that consistently exceed permissible limits. The sector also contributes significantly to ambient noise pollution in industrial and urban areas, through noisy operations and traffic noise linked to distribution and the growing number of home deliveries and returns.^(1-7)

See also: CO2 emissions, Water pollution, Externalized costs, Offshore manufacture, Collective bargaining.

Off-cut waste refers to fabric pieces that are left over during production after garments have been cut out. Off-cuts may range in size, from small cutting scraps that are often mixed with leftover yarns to larger pieces of about half a meter. The size of production off-cuts depends on design, production methods and the layout of pattern pieces on fabric (layplan). While volume estimates vary, as data on production waste is rarely systematically logged in factories, off-cut waste accounts for a significant proportion of textile waste generated in industrial garment production. The volumes are larger still if other production waste such as end of roll fabrics, surplus stock, overproduced items, or fabric and garment rejects are included. Production textile waste is especially problematic in major production countries such as China, India or Bangladesh where large volumes of leftover textiles are generated without appropriate waste streams. This means that while some production waste is downcycled, most leftover textiles are still either incinerated or dumped in landfills. Increasing number of brands and technology start-ups are exploring how production waste can be optimized through the use of digitalization and zero-waste techniques. Pioneering micro and small fashion businesses are embracing creative solutions for the use of production waste in the manufacturing of new fashion products. However, at the global level, there are still multiple interconnected economic, legislative and infrastructure barriers to such practices. These include a lack of economic incentives for re-sale of production waste; administrative barriers to the transfer of textile leftovers from producers to recipients; unclear regulations regarding end-of-waste criteria (when textiles are waste and when they are a material); and also insufficient infrastructure for recycling of those types of textile waste that are currently recyclable.^(1-8)

See also: Pre-consumer waste, Post-consumer waste, Circular economy, Closed-loop recycling, Traceability, End of life, Supply chain, Resourcefulness.

Overconsumption is a mode of excessive consumption, that outpaces both the real needs of people and the capacity of the global ecosystems to regenerate. The rates of fashion consumption in the Global North have been on the rise since the 1950s, followed by similar developments in emerging economies such as India and China. Yet, fashion consumption has especially accelerated since the 1990s with the introduction of the fast fashion model. High turnover of fashion products is now a widespread practice across many areas of the world and research shows that garments are often used for less than a season.⁽¹⁾ It is estimated that the number of times a garment is worn before disposal has decreased by a worldwide average of 36% percent within the last two decades⁽²⁾ and the average number of times a garment gets worn is now lower in China than in Europe.⁽³⁾ Large quantities of valuable clothes are regularly discarded and because only a small fraction can be recycled, most are destined for incineration or end up in landfills.^(4-6) Apart from the alarming volumes of waste, the "endless cycles of desire and disappointment"⁽⁷⁾ linked to fast turnovers of styles have also potentially negative effects on the well-being of fashion users.⁽⁸⁾

See also: Efficiency, Growth, Take-make-use-dispose model, Prosperity, Sufficiency, Paradigm change, Systems change, Post-growth economy, Post-growth fashion.

Packaging is the protective layer of material that covers goods in various stages of their manufacturing, distribution, sale and use. It is especially the plastic packaging and accessories used along all stages of the value chain that highlight the growing concerns regarding the waste streams generated by the fashion industry. The low cost and versatile properties of single use plastic are reflected in its widespread use: covers for fabric rolls and components delivered to manufacturers; individual protective wrappers for garments as they arrive in a store or a warehouse; garment hangers in retail outlets and households; shopping bags; and wrapping used for delivery of on-line purchases. It is estimated that plastic packaging now accounts for 26% of the total volume of all plastic use, and that of the 150 million tonnes of plastics in the ocean today, the majority originates from packaging of consumer goods.⁽¹⁾

See also: Microfiber pollution, Microplastics, Biodiversity, Global inequality, Extinction, Take-make-use-dispose model.

Polyester is the world's most common synthetic fiber that along with cotton accounts for the majority of the worldwide fiber market.^(1,4) Its production heavily relies on non-renewable resources such as petroleum and carbon-based fossil fuels, and it is linked with high CO2 and other greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The production process is also highly energy intensive; meaning that polyester requires considerably more energy use than cotton. On the other hand, it generally takes only a fraction of the water use required by cotton. Like other synthetic fibers, polyester is increasingly associated with microfiber pollution, specifically microplastics, that endanger marine wildlife and pose serious risks to human and environmental health.^(1-5) Alternatives now include recycled polyester or bio-based polyester; however, both currently cover only a fraction of the polyester market. In addition, like conventional polyester, polyester alternatives still contribute to microfiber pollution.

See also: Carbon footprint, Synthetic materials, Natural materials, Sustainable materials, Virgin materials, Non-virgin materials, Recycled materials.

Post-consumer waste is waste generated after a product has reached its target user. Examples include used and worn-out clothing and accessories, but also valuable new items that were purchased and discarded without having ever been used.

Pre-consumer waste is waste generated before a product has reached its target user. Examples include fabric and leather offcuts from the manufacturing process as well as excess stock of fabrics and unsold finished products.

Synthetic materials are manufactured from either natural polymers (e.g. viscose, lyocell, acetate) or synthetic polymers (e.g. polyester, nylon, acrylic). The manufacturing processes rely on heavy use of chemicals, high energy use and depletion of non-renewable resources. Burning of fossil fuels to power chemical plants also generates high volumes of CO2 and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Yet, just as in the case of natural materials, the impacts of each synthetic material vary in relation to where and how it is manufactured. For example, the production of rayon (viscose, modal and lyocell) uses wood pulp as a raw material and so contributes to alarming rates of deforestation, unless the wood is grown and extracted under a responsible forestry program such as Canopy. Synthetic materials are also increasingly associated with microfiber pollution and the release of microplastics, which endanger marine wildlife and human health.^(1-6)

See also: Carbon footprint, Hazardous chemicals, Environmental costs, Water pollution, Blend materials, Recycled materials.

The linear take-make-use-dispose model refers to a mode of production and consumption where resources are extracted, used up, and discarded without any consideration of their end of life stage or their regenerative capacity. This contrasts with the circular economy model and closed-loop recycling strategies, that aim to minimize the depletion of natural resources and reduce waste and pollution by keeping materials, products and resources in use for as long as possible, through iterative cycles of resource recovery and regeneration.⁽¹⁾

See also: Renewable resources, Non-renewable resources, Landfill, Incineration, Planetary boundaries, Environmental costs.

Waste refers to materials discarded for being unwanted, surplus to requirements, or unusable. Waste associated with the fashion industry includes, but is not limited to, offcuts from the manufacturing process, excess stock of both fabrics and products that have not sold, excessive packaging, and unused products once purchased. The fashion industry traditionally operates within a linear take-make-use-dispose model. Large volumes of mostly non-renewable resources are used up in the process of making items that have increasingly shorter active lifetimes. While global clothing sales are estimated to have doubled since 2000, the average number of times a garment is used (including re-use) is thought to have nearly halved.⁽¹⁾ An estimated 87% of fibers used in clothing production do not get recycled and instead end up in landfills or are incinerated.⁽²⁾ This includes both pre-consumer waste from all stages of manufacture and post-consumer waste of clothing discarded after use. Another concern is linked to plastic packaging that is used along all stages of production, distribution and retailing of fashion products. Single use plastic still dominates and is used for fabric rolls and components delivered to manufacturers, for protective wrappers used in distribution, as well as for shopping bags or wrapping for on-line purchases. If the current trend in speed and constant increase of production and generation of waste across all stages of the fashion value chain continue, instead of meeting the necessary reductions before 2030 (see the United Nations Fashion Industry Charter for Climate Action), the industry's contribution to global waste is estimated to more than double by 2030.⁽³⁾ Waste, in relation to fashion, can be extended to cover the undervaluing of design and making skills applied to pieces that are not worn or disposed of as well as the waste of money spent by customers on pieces that are quickly discarded.

See also: Overconsumption, Efficiency, Growth, Ecological footprint, Environmental costs, Extending clothing lifetimes, Anti-waste and Circular Economy Bill.

Water pollution refers to the contamination of water streams, lakes, oceans, groundwater, and sources of drinking water due to human activity. The role of fashion in water pollution is linked to run offs of pesticides and fertilizers used in the production of natural materials and the contamination of waterways with toxic chemicals from all stages of textile production, including processes such as dyeing and finishing. Further pollution is caused by the release of chemicals and microplastics during the use phase of clothing, especially through domestic laundering. Large volumes of unsold and used clothing deposited in landfills cause further water damage through leakages into waterways. The Citarum river in Indonesia, with over 200 textile factories along its riverbank, is considered the most polluted river in the world.^(1,2)

See also: Synthetic materials, Cotton, Dyes, Water use, Water scarcity, Global inequality, Microfiber pollution, Hazardous chemicals, Health hazards, Biodiversity.

Water scarcity refers to the lack of water sources, including drinking water, to meet the needs of a population. Production of textiles for the fashion industry is responsible for a high proportion of worldwide water use, which is especially alarming considering that textile production largely takes place in regions that already suffer from scarce water resources, such as India and China. Research estimates that 4 billion people (half the global population)⁽¹⁾ face severe water scarcity for at least 1 month a year, and almost 50% of these live in India and China.⁽²⁾ Half a billion people then live in severe water scarcity all year round.⁽²⁾ Global water scarcity is exacerbated by climate change and population growth (UN projections: 8.5 billion in 2030, 9.7 billion in 2050, 10.9 billion in 2100).⁽¹⁾ The 2019 World Economic Forum Global Risks report lists water crisis as one of the most critical concerns for the next decade.^(3-5)

See also: Water pollution, Cotton, Global inequality, Global warming, Climate crisis, Biodiversity, Extinction.

See Water scarcity.

Water use is the volume of fresh water used by individuals and businesses. This includes both water consumed and water polluted in the process of meeting the needs and demand for producing goods and services for individuals and communities globally. Related to water use is the concept of water footprint,⁽¹⁾ developed to enhance the understanding of how our production and consumption choices affect the use of global water sources. The concept of virtual water⁽²⁾ highlights the hidden flows of water that occur when products are traded internationally.^(1-3)

See also: Water pollution, Water scarcity, Global inequality, Global warming, Climate crisis, Renewable resources, Non-renewable resources, Biodiversity, Extinction.